OFFICE  NO.  9  MAIN  ST. 

Residence  Sfl  Allan  ft* 


HORACE  GUNi 
Scientific 
San  Diege.j 


*>. 


,* 


LYMPHATIC  VESSELS  OF  THE  THORAX  X  ABDOMAN, 


A  TREATISE 


ON 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HEALTH, 


DESIGNED    FOR 


STUDENTS,  SCHOOLS,  AND  POPULAR  USE, 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NUMEROUS  PLATES. 


BY   W.    BEACH,    M.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OP  CLINICAL  PRACTICE  IN  THE  ECLECTIC  MEDICAL  COLLEGE,  CINCINNATI,  OHIO. 
AUTHOR    OP    THE   AMERICAN   PRACTICE,   MIDWIFERY,   &C. 


•  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made." 


NEW  YORK: 

PUBLISHED     BY    THE    AUTHOR, 

AT  THE  ANATOMICAL  MUSEUM, 

CORNER    OF   BOWERY    AND    DIVISION    STREET. 
1847. 


n, 
v 


' 

- 


[Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress.] 


8.    W.    BENEDICT, 
Ster.  and  Print.,  16  Spruce  Street,  N.  Y. 


- 


.        /^jfC' 
• 


TO 

THE    PROFESSORS 

OF 

Cincinnati  (Eclectic   JtUMcal   College, 

THIS    TREATISE    IS    RESPECTFULLY    DEDICATED 
BY    THEIR   OBEDIENT    SERVANT, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


I 


INTRODUCTION. 


I  NOW  present  to  the  public  my  Treatise  on  ANATOMY,  PHY- 
SIOLOGY, and  HEALTH,  designed  both  for  the  student  of  medicine 
as  well  as  the  general  reader.  I  at  first  intended  to  issue  a  large 
work  and  plates,  to  correspond  with  my  midwifery ;  but  upon  more 
mature  reflection,  I  deemed  it  best  to  publish  it  in  the  present  form 
and  size,  with  the  accompanying  figures.  The  price  of  a  work  as 
large  and  costly  as  I  at  first  contemplated,  would  have  restricted  the 
sale  considerably,  in  placing  it  beyond  the  reach  of  those  in  limited 
circumstances.  These  objections,  together  with  the  great  labor  and 
cost  of  the  text  and  engravings,  have  induced  me  thus  to  issue  it ; 
and  I  think  it  preferable,  taking  everything  into  consideration.  I 
have  labored  to  be  brief,  perspicuous,  and  comprehensive,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  give  clear  and  full  illustrations,  both  by  the  text 
and  numerous  plates ;  without  which  every  work  of  the  kind  is  very 
imperfect  and  poorly  calculated  to  impart  instruction. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that  I  have  adapted  this  treatise  to  the 
capacity  of  the  popular  reader,  as  well  as  the  student  of  medicine. 
We  must  depend  for  patronage  for  a  work  of  this  kind  upon  all 
classes  of  the  community ;  and  indeed  the  success  of  our  reformatory 
course  in  medicine,  I  apprehend,  depends  much  upon  disseminating 
among  them  correct  views  in  Physiology,  which  shows  obviously 
the  utility  and  importance  of  such  a  work.  All  classes  are  daily 
suffering  from  want  of  more  information  on  those  laws  which  govern 


Yl  INTRODUCTION. 

their  organization,  and  which  are  constantly  violated  through  igno- 
rance. This  fact  ought  to  convince  every  one  that  there  is  a  necessity 
of  studying  those  laws,  both  to  prevent  and  cure  disease.  The 
physiological  inferences  which  I  have  drawn  at  the  close  of  different 
chapters  will  be  found,  I  believe,  instructive  and  useful. 

I  lay  no  claim  to  any  new  discovery  on  the  subject  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology.  Both  of  these  branches  of  medicine  have  been  investi- 
gated and  improved.  But  in  consequence  of  a  vast  amount  of 
useful  matter  scattered  in  various  authors,  mixed  up  with  much  that 
is  very  indifferent,  I  have  consulted  them  analytically  and  eclecti- 
cally.  Hence,  I  have  drawn  my  materials,  as  I  have  in  my  other 
works,  from  every  available  source.  This  has  rendered  it  very 
difficult  to  condense  the  great  amount  of  voluminous  matter  into 
the  compass  of  the  present  volume.  I  have  endeavored,  however, 
to  omit  nothing  really  valuable,  and  at  the  same  time  have  endea- 
vored to  present  the  subjects  treated  of  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
•-J  the  study  of  Physiology  pleasing  as  well  as  instructive.  How  far 
I  have  succeeded  I  must  leave  to  the  candid  and  enlightened  reader. 
As  for  the  ignorant  and  prejudiced,  I  expect  neither  their  good 
opinion  or  patronage. 

If  our  Reform  Schools  of  Medicine  do  not  regard  this  treatise  as 
a  text-book  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  I  humbly  trust  that  they 
will  at  least  receive  and  recommend  it  as  an  elementary  or  pre- 
paratory treatise. 

I  will  close  these  remarks  in  the  language  of  Lawrence,  in  his 
introduction  to  his  Lectures  on  Man :  "  I  shall  be  satisfied,  how- 
ever, gentlemen,  if  you  will  accord  to  me  the  humbler  merits — of 
industry,  in  collecting  materials ;  patience  in  arranging,  combining, 
and  reflecting  on  them  ;  fidelity  and  independence  in  exhibiting  to 
you,  precisely  as  they  appeared  to  my  mind,  the  inferences  and 
deductions  that  resulted  from  the  whole." 

W.  BEACH. 

Anatomical  Museum,  New  York,  Sept.,  1847. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION,   -        -  .  ^-upigvo  /*:n     -        -     /.•*-?  3    7 

CHAPTER  I. 
PRELIMINARY  REMARKS,    -  ...        9 

CHAPTER  II. 
GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  HUMAN  SYSTEM,  -        -        -        -      11 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  BONES,      -  .  ...       -    .    -        .  •      .      26 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  JOINTS,      -  50 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  MUSCLES,  -        -  -,-----55 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM,     -  -----      85 

CHAPTER  VII. 

RESPIRATION — STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LUNGS — THE  THORAX  AND 
ITS  CONTENTS,    -  --.,„.    112 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
CIRCULATION,    -     V. 133 


\ 

Till  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DIGESTION,         ...  .  ^        .        _    153 

CHAPTER  X. 

SECRETION  AND  EXCRETION,      .        .        -        .        .        .    179 

CHAPTER  XL 
EXHALATION  AND  ABSORPTION,          .....    184 

CHAPTER  XII. 
CUTANEOUS  SYSTEM,  OR  SKIN,  -  ....    139 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  ABSORBENT  SYSTEM,          -        -     -^     -        .        .    196 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  SENSES,  .   -     ^  ^\,:^£  x.^;!..       .     .fr^f     .      ./    197 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  TEMPERAMENTS,  -        -        .        .        .        -211 

APPENDIX. 

PHRENOLOGY,    -        -        -        -  -        -     ;V<*T^  ,  ;*,    213 

MESMERISM, .        -    217 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PRELIMINARY   REMARKS. 

ANATOMY.  The  word  anatomy  is  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
to  cut,  carve,  or  dissect.  In  an  enlarged  or  extended  sense  it 
applies  to  men,  plants,  and  animals.  The  latter  is  termed  com- 
parative anatomy. 

Human  anatomy  may  be  comprised  under  two  divisions, 
namely )  ANATOMY  and  PHYSIOLOGY.  First,  a  description  of  the 
organs,  termed  anatomical,  giving  an  account  only  of  their  struc- 
ture or  organization.  Secondly,  of  their  uses,  termed  physiology. 

The  human  system  is  composed  of  firm  and  soft  parts,  com 
monly  called  solids  and  fluids ;  of  the  solids,  some  are  hard,  others 
soft  and  flexible,  they  are  the  principal  subjects  of  anatomy,  pro- 
perly so  called.  The  solid  parts  are  bone,  cartilage,  ligament, 
fibre,  membrane,  vessel,  artery,  vein,  nerve,  muscle,  gland,  fat, 
viscus,  organ,  &c.  Bone  is  the  hardest,  most  solid,  and  most  in- 
flexible part.  Cartilage  is  a  whitish  or  pearl  colored  substance, 
softer  than  a  bone,  smooth,  polished,  pliable,  and  elastic. 

A  ligament  is  a  white,  fibrous,  compact  substance,  more  pliable 
than  a  cartilage ;  difficult  to  be  broken  or  torn ;  and  yielding  but 
very  little  when  drawn  out  with  force. 

&J  fibre,  is  meant  small  filaments,  which  are  the  most  simple 
parts  of  the  body,  and  which  compose  all  other  parts  ;  they  differ 
in  substance,  direction,  and  size,  according  to  the  parts  they  com- 
pose. 

By  membrane  we  mean  a  pliable  texture  of  fibres  interwoven 
together ;  these  are  termed  laminae.  Small  portions  of  membranes, 
when  very  thin,  are  called  pellicula ;  and  this,  when  united  to 
thicker  membranes,  is  termed  the  cellular  or  spongy  substance. 

JOHN  LOW),  M.  D. 

Jamestown,  N.  Y. 

OFFICE  NO.  &  WAIN  STM 

Residence  50  Alien  8t 


10  PRELIMINARY   REMARKS. 

The  adipose  membrane  is  the  same  as  the  cellular,  but  the  former 
is  rendered  impervious  by  the  distension  its  contents  occasion. 

Vessels  are  tubes,  composed  of  different  membranes,  the  strata 
of  which  are  termed  tunica,  or  coats  :  they  are  named  according  to 
the  fluids  they  contain,  as  blood-vessels,  vasa  lactea,  lymphatics, 
&c.  The  smallest  extremities  of  all  vessels  are  generally  termed 
capillaries.  The  blood-vessels  are  of  two  kinds ;  arteries,  which 
carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  every  part  of  the  system ;  and 
veins,  which  bring  it  back  again  to  the  heart.  The  arteries  are  thicker 
and  deeper  seated  than  the  veins ;  the  veins  have  valves  which 
open  towards  the  heart  at  different  distances  to  prevent  the  blood 
from  returning,  but  are  not  irritable  like  arteries,  except  the  large 
ones  near  the  heart. 

By  nerves  are  meant  the  white  ropy  parts  or  cords,  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  and  are  spread  over  all  the 
parts  of  the  body,  by  small  ramifications.  They  are  the  seat  and 
origin  of  all  our  faculties,  of  sensation  and  motion. 

The  muscle  is  what  we  commonly  call  flesh,  which  is  composed 
of  various  distinct  portions  :  its  white  ends  are  termed  tendon. 

Glands  are  clustered  bodies  distinguished  from  other  parts  by 
their  form,  consistence,  texture,  connexion. 

The  kidneys,  and  the  pancreas  or  sweetbread,  are  properly  de- 
nominated glands. 

Fat  and  marrow  is  that  oily  substance  composed  partly  of  cel- 
lular, partly  of  membraneous,  and  partly  of  an  unctuous  matter ; 
it  is  entirely  deprived  of  sensibility,  like  all  liquors  secerned  from 
the  blood.  Marrow  differs  only  by  its  fineness,  and  from  its  being 
situated  within  the  bones. 

By  viscera,  is  meant  all  the  internal  parts  contained  in  the  cavity 
of  the  body.  Every  part  capable  of  any  function  is  termed  an 
organ. 

In  this  work  all  the  leading  divisions  will  be  the  subject  of  a 
particular  chapter. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE   HUMAN   SYSTEM.  11 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL   VIEW    OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM. 

IT  may  not  be  improper  in  the  commencement  of  this  treatise  to 
give  some  observations  on  the  human  system  in  general,  prepara- 
tory to  an  examination  more  in  detail  of  the  various  organs. 

THE    BONES. 

Say  what  the  various  bones  so  wisely  wrought, 
How  was  their  frame  to  such  perfection  brought  ? 
What  did  their  figures  for  their  uses  fit, 
Their  number  fix,  and  joints  adapted  knit ; 
And  made  them  all  in  that  just  order  stand, 
Which  motion,  strength,  and  ornament  demand  7 
What  for  the  sinews  spun  so  strong  a  thread, 
The  curious  loom,  to  weave  the  muscles  spread  7 

The  Atheist,  if  to  search  for  truth  inclin'd, 
May  in  himself  his  full  conviction  find, 
And  from  his  body  teach  his  erring  mind; 

The  use  of  the  bones  is  to  give  shape  and  firmness  to  the  body, 
levers  for  the  muscles  to  act  upon,  and  to  defend  those  parts  that 
are  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  be  preserved,  as  the  brain, 
heart,  &c. 

Bones  are  cast  into  a  variety  of  moulds  and  sizes,  strong  to  bear 
up  the  body,  yet  light,  not  to  depress  by  their  weight :  bored,  to 
contain  the  moistening  marrow ;  and  perforated  with  exceeding 
fine  ducts,  to  admit  the  nourishing  vessels  ;  insensible  themselves, 
they  are  covered  with  the  periosteum,  a  membrane  that  warns  of 
approaching  injury,  and  preserves  the  muscles  from  being  irritated 
by  their  action.  Their  figures  are  most  precisely  fitted  to  their 
uses  ;  they  are  generally  larger  at  the  extremities  than  in  the  mid- 
dle, that  they  may  be  joined  more  firmly,  and  not  so  easily  dis- 
located ;  and  the  manner  of  their  articulation  is  particularly  curious. 

The  feet  compose  the  firmest  and  neatest  pedestal,  far  beyond 
all  that  statuary  or  architecture  can  accomplish ;  capable  of  alter- 
ing its  form,  or  extending  its  size,  as  circumstances  require.  They 
contain  a  set  of  the  nicest  springs,  which  assist  to  place  the  body 


12  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

in  a  variety  of  graceful  attitudes,  and  qualify  it  for  a  multiplicity  of 
advantageous  motions.  The  heel  has  under  it  a  tendinous  sub- 
stance, so  tough  as  not  to  wear,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  prevent 
the  weight  of  the  body  from  pressing  too  much  on  the  finer  vessels. 

The  legs  and  thighs  are  substantial  columns,  articulated  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  administer  most  commodiously  to  the  act  of  walk- 
ing :  they  swell  out  at  the  top,  and  are  taper  towards  the  bottom, 
which  lessens  their  bulk  at  the  same  time  that  it  increases  their 
L_  beauty. 

The  ribs  form  a  regular  arch,  gently  movable,  for  the  act  of 
respiration;  they  form  a  secure  lodgment  for  the  lungs,  heart,  &c. 

The  spine  or  back-bone  is  intended  not  only  to  strengthen  the 
body,  but  also  to  bring  down  the  spinal  marrow  from  the  brain.  It 
guards,  in  a  well-closed  case,  this  vital  silver.  This  fluid  is  thus 
communicated  to  each  part  of  the  body  ;  had  it  been  large,  straight, 
and  hollow,  it  might  have  done  this  ;  but  then  the  loins  would  have 
been  inflexible,  and  we  should  have  been,  as  it  were,  impaled  alive  : 
to  prevent  this  it  consists  of  short  bones  knit  together  by  inter- 
vening cartilages.  This  prevents  dislocation,  and  gives  .this  main 
pillar  of  our  frame  the  pliancy  of  the  willow,  while  it  possesses 
the  firmness  of  an  oak.  It  is  a  kind  of  continued  joint,  capable  of 
various  inflexions,  without  injuring  the  medullary  contents,  and 
without  intercepting  the  nervous  fluid,  which  is  to  be  detached  from 
this  grand  reservoir,  or  diminishing  the  strength  necessary  to  sup- 
port the  whole.  A  structure  so  singular  in  any  other  of  the  solids, 
would  have  been  attended  with  great  inconveniences,  but  is  here  a 
masterpiece  of  creating  skill. 

The  arms  pendent  on  each  side  are  the  guards  that  defend  the 
whole  body,  and  are  fitted  for  the  most  diversified  operations ;  firm 
with  bone,  yet  not  weighty  with  flesh,  capable  of  performing  with 
expedition  and  ease  all  useful  motions ;  they  move  inwards,  out- 
ward, upward,  and  recline  downward ;  they  wheel  round,  and  can 
be  placed  in  every  situation  we  please.  To  these  are  annexed  the 
hands,  and  both  are  terminated  by  the  fingers,  which  are  not,  like 
the  arms,  of  equal  length  and  size,  but  in  both  respects  different ; 
which  adds  to  their  graceful  appearance  and  utility.  Were  they 
all  flesh,  they  would  be  impotent ;  were  they  all  one  bone,  they 
would  not  be  movable  ;  but  consisting  as  they  do  of  various  small 
bones  and  muscles,  they  answer  every  possible  use,  and  being 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  arm,  their  sphere  of  action  is  considerably 
enlarged.  The  extremities  of  the  fingers  are  an  assemblage  of  fine 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  13 

tendinous  fibres  most  acutely  sensible  ;  and  notwithstanding  this 
delicacy,  are  in  constant  employ ;  but  to  protect  them  they  are 
overlaid  with  nails,  a  horny  expansion  which  hinders  the  flesh  from 
being  ungracefully  flattened,  and,  like  a  sheath,  preserves  the  ten- 
der parts  from  injury.  The  varied  and  delicate  movements  of  these 
agents  produce  all  the  charms  of  instrumental  music. 

Above  all  is  the  head  ;  a  majestic  dome,  designed  for  the  resi- 
dence of  the  brain ;  it  is  framed  in  exact  conformity  to  this  im- 
portant purpose  ;  ample  to  receive  it — strong  to  uphold  it — and 
firm  to  defend  it.  It  is  screened  from  heat  and  defended  from  cold 
by  a  copious  growth  of  hair  ;  which  also  adds  to  its  beauty,  which 
nature. is  always  attentive  to,  in  subordination  to  usefulness. 

LIGAMENTS. 

The  bones  are  tied  together,  those  that  have  motion,  by  liga- 
m^ts  j  a  tough  and  strong  arrangement  of  fibres,  which  also  bind 
down  some  of  the  tendons,  and  give  origin  to  the  muscles  ;  and 
render  what  would  otherwise  be  an  unwieldy  mass,  a  well  com- 
pacted and  manageable  system.  The  fleshy  parts  are  often  sepa- 
rated or  connected  by  membranes,  which  are  sets  of  fibres  ex- 
panded, to  cover  or  line  other  parts ;  such  as  the  Mesentery  and 
Mediastinum  are  membranes ;  the  first  connects  the  intestines ; 
the  last  divides  the  thorax. 

ARTERIES. 

The  ancients  called  the  human  body  the  microcosm  or  little 
world  :  and  the  arteries  may  be  called  its  rivers ;  the  blood  is  con- 
veyed by  the  arteries  to  the  head  and  every  part  of  the  system. 
When  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  contracts,  the  blood  is  forced 
into  the  arteries,  which  then  swell,  and  form  what  is  termed  the 
pulse  ;  the  heart  and  arteries  dilate  eighty  times  in  a  minute,  which 
act  occasions  the  beating  we  feel.  The  arteries  carry  their  stream 
of  vital  fluid  from  the  heart ;  the  veins  run  all  in  a  stream  towards 
it ;  and  because  a  wound  or  any  impediment  to  the  circulation  in 
the  arteries  would  be  fatal,  they  are  placed  deep  in  the  flesh,  and 
can  seldom  be  seen ;  so  that  the  bending  of  the  limbs  does  not  stop 
their  course. 

VEINS. 

In  bleeding,  the  bandage  is  tied  above  the  elbow,  to  prevent  the 
blood  passing  towards  the  heart;  and  the  median  vein  is  cut; 


14  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

whereas,  if  it  were  an  artery,  the  band  must  be  tied  below  the 
wound,  for  the  tide  would  be  going  downwards,  from  the  heart. 
The  humeral  artery  lies  under  this  vein,  which  it  is  dangerous  to 
wound.  Where  the  arteries  end,  the  veins  begin  ;  small  at  first, 
but  gradually  enlarging,  they  are  void  of  pulsation,  and  as  the 
force  of  the  blood  is  not  so  strong  in  them,  so  their  substance  is 
thinner.  When  the  blood  is  forced  upwards,  valves  are  provided 
to  prevent  its  return ;  and  these  open  only  one  way,  like  valves  in 
pumps.  The  blood  in  the  veins  moves  seven  hundred  times  slower 
than  in  the  arteries. 

GLANDS. 

The  glands  have  the  office  of  straining  from  the  blood  various 
fluids,  as  the  bile,  saliva,  urine,  &c. 

MUSCLES.  ^ 

The  muscles  are  those  fleshy  parts  which  perform  the  motions  of 
the  body  ;  and  these  are  acted  upon  by  nerves,  which  are  sur- 
prisingly minute  vessels,  which  pervade  every  part,  and  are  the 
immediate  objects  of  sensation.  The  white  part  of  a  muscle  is 
called  a  tendon,  which  is  composed  of  fibres,  more  compact  and 
in  less  space. 

SKIN. 

The  body  is  covered  with  a  skin  of  the  most  delicate  net-work, 
through  the  pores  of  which  is  discharged  an  insensible  fluid  con- 
tinually ;  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  so  minute  that  a  grain  of  sand 
would  cover  125,000  of  these  little  funnels,  which  are  incessantly 
employed  in  carrying  off  a  superfluous  vapor  from  the  blood.  The 
discharge  from  the  skin  is  upwards  of  three  pounds  daily  of  ex- 
crementitious  fluid,  and  in  quantity  the  evacuation  by  its  pores 
exceeds  that  of  the  urine.  Hence  the  importance  of  keeping  this 
organ  in  a  healthy  state. 

Nature  does  not  forget  beauty  in  her  operations,  and  what  can 
beautify  our  form  more  than  the  veins  lying  parallel  to  the  skin,  in 
those  parts  most  conspicuous  to  public  view — the  pliant  wrist,  the 
taper  arm,  they  variegate  with  an  inlay  of  living  sapphire.  They 
spread  vermillion  over  the  lips,  and  plant  roses  in  the  cheeks — 
while  the  eye,  tinged  with  glossy  jet,  or  sparkling  with  cellular 
blue,  rolls  in  polished  crystal. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  15 

NUTRITION. 

All  these  parts  are  in  incessant  action,  which  exhausts  the  fluids, 
and  wastes  the  solids ;  to  obviate  this,  the  frame  is  endued  with 
the  powers  of  nutrition.  The  teeth  prepare  our  food  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  those  in  front,  sharp  and  thin,  to  receive  and  cut  the  food ; 
those  behind,  broad  and  strong,  indented  like  the  surface  of  a  mill- 
stone, with  small  cavities,  the  better  to  fit  them  for  grinding  it.  As 
milk  is  our  food  for  some  time  after  we  are  born,  and  as  teeth  would 
hurt  the  tender  nipple,  nature  has  wisely  postponed  the  appearance 
of  teeth  until  they  become  necessary.  All  our  other  bones  are 
covered  with  a  very  fine  skin,  but  this  covering  is  omitted  on  the 
teeth,  as  chewing  would  then  have  been  attended  with  exquisite 
pain.  Had  they  been  uncovered,  they  would  have  been  subject  to 
injuries  from  the  air,  and  to  the  penetration  of  liquors  that  would 
destroy  them,  to  guard  against  which  they  are  curiously  covered 
with  a  fine  white  enamel,  harder  than  the  bone  itself. 

Growing  as  they  do  in  rows,  numerous,  and  none  rising  higher 
than  the  other,  they  form  a  regular  and  beautiful  addition  to  the 
mouth.  To  their  aid,  they  also  call  in  the  tongue  and  lips,  the 
latter  keep  the  food  in  the  mouth,  while  the  tongue  returns  it  to 
the  renewed  attrition  of  the  grinders  ;  the  motion  of  the  cheeks  at 
the  same  time,  with  the  stimulus  of  food  in  the  mouth,  presses  out 
from  a  variety  of  reservoirs  a  moistening  liquor  necessary  to  pre- 
pare the  food  for  digestion,  as  well  as  to  soften  and  facilitate  its 
passage  into  the  stomach — when  the  mouth  is  inactive,  these 
fountains  are  mostly  at  rest,  but  when  we  eat  or  speak  their 
assistance  is  always  ready. 

As  the  food  passes  the  wind-pipe,  before  it  enters  the  cesophagus 
or  gullet,  there  is  a  valve  provided,  which  shuts  on  the  approach 
of  any  substance,  but  the  moment  it  has  passed,  it  opens  again ;  we 
all  know  what  uneasiness  is  created  by  the  smallest  morsel  going 
the  wrong  way ;  which  if  not  thus  guarded  would  expose  us  to 
instant  death,  by  admitting  any  substance  on  the  lungs. 

The  muscles  of  the  gullet  are  contrived  to  pass  our  food  quickly, 
but  the  stomach  is  constituted  to  retain  its  contents,  which  are 
lodged  in  the  centre  and  made  soft  by  the  most  kindly  combination 
of  heat  and  humidity.  From  whence,  after  being  reduced  to  the 
most  nicely  mixed  pulp,  they  are  dislodged  by  a  gently  acting 
force  and  pass  into  the  intestines ;  where,  meeting  the  bile  and 
pancreatic  juices,  it  is  passed  by  the  vermicular,  or  peristaltic 


16  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

motion  of  the  intestines,  through  its  various  windings,  and  the 
nourishing  parts  of  it  all  absorbed  by  the  lacteals,  and  by  them 
conveyed  into  the  blood.  These  vessels  are  arranged  in  countless 
multitudes  along  the  sides  of  the  winding  passage — they  are  so 
framed  as  to  admit  the  nutrimental  parts,  and  reject  the  gross  and 
useless  parts.  The  bowels  are  about  twenty-five  feet  long,  lined 
with  a  soft  mucus,  and  having  valves  to  prevent  the  aliment  from 
returning  back  to  the  stomach  ;  the  substance  of  the  bowels,  though 
thin  to  a  delicacy,  is  very  strong;  the  skin  of  an  ox-gut  is  said  to 
bear  ihe  blows  of  a  gold-beater's  hammer  for  years. 

BLOOD. 

The  chyle,  drawn  off  by  all  the  secretory  orifices,  is  carried  along 
millions  of  the  finest  ducts,  and  lodged  in  several  commodious 
glands  from  whence  it  is  conveyed  to  a  common  receptacle,  and 
mounts  through  a  perpendicular  tube,  called  the  thoracic  duct.  As 
this  is  the  principal  nourishment  of  the  whole  system,  its  convey- 
ance is  guarded  with  peculiar  caution.  The  tube  not  having 
sufficient  force  of  its  own  is  laid  contiguous  to  the  great  artery, 
whose  strong  pulsation  drives  on  the  creeping  fluid,  enables  it  to 
overcome  the  steep  ascent,  and  unload  its  precious  treasure  at  the 
very  door  of  the  heart.  Here  it  enters  a  large  vein  called  the  left 
subclavian,  most  conveniently  -opened  for  its  reception  in  an 
oblique  manner,  by  which  the  refluent  blood,  assisted  by  a  valve, 
expedites  instead  of  obstructing  its  passage.  This  milk,  this 
manna  of  nature,  must  be  very  acceptable  to  the  blood,  which  has 
now  been  supplying  every  gland  in  the  system,  and  further  im- 
poverished by  supplying  myriads  of  vessels  with  matter  for  insen- 
sible perspiration,  yet,  though,  thus  kindly  recruited,  it  is  not 
refined.  In  its  present  state  it  is  unqualified  to  perform  the  vital 
tour;  therefore,  by  a  grand  apparatus  of  muscular  fibres,  it  is 
wafted  into  the  lungs,  and  pouring  a  thousand  rills  into  either  lobe 
in  the  -spongy  cells  of  their  amazing  laboratory,  it  imbibes  the  in- 
fluences of  the  external  air,  giving  out  some  useless  parts,  and 
imbibing  some  more  necessary,  and  thus  its  heterogeneous  parts  are 
thoroughly  incorporated.  Here  its  red  color  commences,  from  the 
change  it  undergoes  from  the  action  of  the  air  ;  and  its  whole  sub- 
stance is  rendered  cool,  smooth,  and  florid.  Thus  improved  it  is 
transmitted  to  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  a  strong,  active, 
unceasing  muscle,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  system.3^  Impelled 

*  This  wonderful  machine  will  go  night  and  day  for  eighty  years  together,  at  the 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  17 

by  that  beating  engine,  part  shoots  upwards,  and  sweeps  with  a 
bounding  impetus  into  the  head,  where  it  impregnates  the  prolific 
fields  of  the  brain,  and  forms  those  subtle  spirituous  dews,  the 
animal  spirits,  which  impart  sense  to  every  nerve,  and  communicate 
motion  to  every  limb.  Part  flows  downward,  and  rolls  the  reeking 
current  through  all  the  lower  quarters ;  and  disperses  the  nutri- 
mental  stores  even  to  the  meanest  member,  and  the  minutest  part. 
Thus  the  human  river,  with  its  incomparable  rich  fluid,  laves  the 
several  regions  of  the  body,  transfusing  vigor  and  propagating 
health  through  the  whole.  When  this  vital  fluid,  has  pervaded 
every  part,  and  given  each  his  proper  fluid,  it  is  met  by  the  ends 
of  veins,  and  by  them  re-conducted  back  to  the  fountain.  There 
it  commences  ftie  same  round ;  and  the  same  force  that  darts  the 
crimson  wave  from  the  heart,  drives  it  also  back  again  to  it. 
Where  opposite  currents  would  be  in  danger  of  clashing,  as  in  the 
ascending  and  descending  great  trunks  of  the  veins,  a  fibrous  ex- 
crescence intervenes,  which,  like  a  projecting  pier,  breaks  the 
stroke  of  each,  and  diverts  both  streams  into  their  proper  re- 
ceptacle. Thus  modelled  by  the  most  judicious  rules,  and  guarded 
by  the  wisest  precautions,  the  living  flood  never  discontinues  its 
interchangeable  tide,  but  night  and  day,  whether  we  sleep  or  wake, 
still  perseveres  to  sally  briskly  through  the  arteries,  and  to  return 
softly  through  the  veins.  These  are  a  few,  and  but  a  very  few 
instances  of  that  contrivance,  regularity,  and  beauty,  which  are  ob- 
servable in  the  human  frame.  Attentive  inquirers  discover  deep 
footsteps  of  design,  and  more  refined  strokes  of  skill, — discover 
them  not  only  in  the  grand  and  most  distinguished  parts,  but  in 
every  limb  and  organ  ;  in  every  fibre  that  is  extended,  in  every  new 
discovered  system  of  vessels,  and  in  every  globule  that  flows ! 

SENSES. 

Having  thus  developed  an  organized  body,  endued  with  a  prin- 
ciple of  motion,  and  furnished  with  the  power  of  nutrition,  the 
sensitive  faculties  are  now  to  be  displayed.  The  functions  of  the 
mind  are  the  effect  of  stimuli,  as  well  as  those  of  the  body ;  and 
the  more  the  mind  is  excited  to  action,  the  more  is  the  vitality 
exhausted.  The  mind  has  a  very  great  influence  upon  the  body, 
and  impressions  made  upon  the  one,  instantly  affect  the  other;  the 

rate  of  one  hundred  thousand  strokes  every  twenty-four  hours,  having  at  every  stroke 
a  great  resistance  to  overcome  ;  and  continue  this  action  for  that  length  of  time  without 
disorder  and  without  weariness,  whether  asleep  or  awake.    A  perpetual  motion. 
2 


18  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

principle  that  gives  all  our  sensation,  when  much  affected  by  the 
operations  of  the  mind,  becomes  weakened,  if  the  intellectual 
faculties  are  acted  upon  by  reflection,  or  impressions  of  any  kind 
to  excess.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  debility  of  the 
system  is  induced  from  too  much  thought  and  intense  study. 

The  creation  abounds  with  objects  fitted  to  yield  the  most  refined 
entertainment — The  sun  impurples  the  robe  of  morning  ;  and  stars 
bespangle  the  curtains  of  night.  Flowers  of  silver  whiteness,  and 
golden  lustre,  enamel  the  ground.  Fruits  of  every  radiant  hue,  and 
every  delicious  taste,  hang  dangling  on  the  boughs,  but  all  in  vain 
to  us,  if  kind  providence  had  not  endowed  us  with  the  powers  of 
sense ;  without  which  the  breath  of  fields  must  lose  its  reviving 
fragrance,  the  whispering  grove  must  degenerate  into  sullen 
silence,  and  nature's  book  of  knowledge,  all  fair  and  instructive, 
would  be  no  better  than  a  vast  unmeaning  blank  ;  but  providence, 
profusely  gracious,  has  presented  us  with  senses.,  the  inlets  of  vari- 
ous delights,  innumerable  pleasures,  and  the  most  valuable  advan- 
tages. 

What  though  we  trace  each  herb  and  flower 

That  drinks  the  morning  dew ; 
Did  we  not  own  Jehovah's  power 

How  vain  were  all  we  knew. 

HANDEL. 

In  an  elevated  situation,  like  a  sentinel  on  a  watch-tower,  high  in 
the  head  is  placed  the  eye,  bright  and  conspicuous  as  a  star  in  the 
brow  of  evening,  commanding  the  most  enlarged  prospects.  Con- 
sisting only  of  simple  fluids,  inclosed  in  their  tunics,  it  conveys  to 
our  apprehension  all  the  graces  of  blooming  nature,  and  all  the  glories 
of  the  visible  heavens.  An  image  of  the  hugest  mountain,  and  a 
transcript  of  the  most  diversified  landscape,  enters  the  small  circuit 
of  the  pupil.  Its  tender  nature  is  guarded  with  most  solicitous  care 
— it  is  intrenched  deep  in  the  head,  and  barricadoed  on  every  side 
with  a  strong  fortification  of  bones.  To  guard  its  polished  surface 
from  the  smallest  fly,  it  is  defended  by  two  substantial  curtains 
hung  on  a  most  slender  cartilaginous  rod  :  these  are  closed  in 
sleep,  and,  on  the  approach  of  any  danger,  fly  together  quicker 
than  thought.  They  are  lined  with  fine  moist  sponges,  as  it  were, 
which  lubricate  the  eye-balls,  and  keep  them  fit  for  unwearied 
activity.  The  eye-lashes  keep  off  the  smallest  mote,  and  moderate 
the  too  potent  rays  of  the  sun.  The  brows  also  break  the  force  of 
the  light,  and  prevent  the  perspiration  from  offending  them.  The 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  19 

arches  are  so  finely  colored,  and  so  elegantly  turned,  that  they  set 
off  the  whiteness  of  the  forehead,  and  bestow  additional  grace  on 
the  whole  countenance. 

The  ear  consists  of  the  porch,  or  semicircular  lodge,  which 
stands  prominent  from  the  head,  and  is  not  soft  and  sinking  as 
flesh,  lest  it  should  absorb  the  sound,  rather  than  promote  the  reper- 
cussion ;  not  hard  and  stubborn  as  bone,  lest  it  should  be  painful 
when  we  repose,  but  is  cartilaginous,  with  a  tight  expansion  of 
skin,  and  wrought  into  irregular  bends  and  hollows,  which  collect 
the  sound  and  transmit  it  to  the  finely  stretched  membrane,  the 
tympanum^  so  called  because  it  resembles  a  drum  in  figure  and 
use ;  being  a  fine  skin  expanded  upon  a  circle  of  bones,  and  over  a 
polished  reverberating  cavity.  It  is  affected  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  external  air,  as  the  covering  of  the  drum  is  by  the  sticks.  It 
is  also  furnished  with  braces,  which  strain  or  relax  at  pleasure,  and 
accommodate  its  tension  either  to  loud  or  languid  sounds. 

The  avenue  of  the  ear  is  secured  by  a  viscous  and  bitter  matter 
from  the  approach  of  insects.  The  winding  labyrinths  and  the 
sounding  galleries,  etc.,  are  all  instrumental  to  the  power  of  hear- 
ing, and  are  beyond  description  curious.  The  auditory  tube  softens 
and  qualifies  rushing  sound,  lest  if  the  incursion  were  direct,  it 
might  by  its  impetuosity  injure  the  delicate  expanse  of  the  tym- 
panum ;  while,  however,  this  is  designed  to  moderate,  the  inner 
parts  are  prepared  to  heighten  and  invigorate  the  sounds,  by  means 
of  an  echo.  Amazingly  nice  and  exact  must  be  the  tension  of  the 
auditory  nerves,  since  they  correspond  with  the  smallest  tremors 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  easily  distinguish  their  most  subtle  varia- 
tions. They 'give  existence  to  the  charms  of  music,  and  reciprocate 
the  rational  entertainments  of  discourse.  The  eye  perceives  only 
the  objects  before  it,  but  the  ear  warns  us  of  transactions  on  every 
side.  The  eye  is  useless  amid  the  gloom  of  night,  but  the  ear 
admits  her  intelligence  through  the  darkest  medium.  The  eye  is 
always  on  duty  in  our  waking  hours,  but  the  ear  is  always  ready 
to  communicate  any  pleasure  or  danger. 

Smelling  conveys,  by  an  expansion  of  the  olfactory  nerves,  an 
idea  to  us  of  the  quality  of  the  particles  wafted  in  the  air.  The 
nostrils  are  wide  at  the  bottom,  that  a  large  quantity  of  effluvia 
may  enter,  narrow  at  the  top  that  they  may  there  act  in  a  more 
vigorous  manner.  Fine  beyond  all  imagination  are  the  steams  which 
exhale  from  fetid  or  fragrant  bodies.  The  microscope  that  can  disco- 
ver millions  of  animalculae  in  a  drop  of  putrefied  water,  cannot 


20  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

one  among  all  those  evanescent  legions  to  our  sight.  Yet  so  judi- 
ciously are  the  olfactory  nets  spread,  that  they  catch  the  roaming 
perfumes  which  emanate  from  the  opening  flower,  and  absorb  the 
stationed  sweets  which  envelope  the  expanded  rose.  They  imbibe 
all  the  balmy  fragrance  of  spring,  all  the  aromatic  exhalations  of 
autumn,  and  enable  us  to  banquet  on  the  invisible  dainties  of 
nature. 

By  taste,  the  food  that  supports  our  body,  feasts  our  palate  ;  first 
treats  us  with  a  regale,  then  distributes  its  beneficial  recruits.  The 
saliva  flowing  upon  the  tongue,  and  moistening  its  nerves,  quickens 
them  into  the  liveliest  acts  of  sensation.  Temperance  sets  the 
finest  edge  on  its  faculties,  and  adds  the  most  poignant  relish  to  its 
enjoyments.  These  senses  are  not  only  so  many  sources  of  delight, 
but  a  joint  security  for  our  health.  They  are  vigilant  and  active 
inspectors. 

To  render  the  whole  complete  is  added  feeling :  while  other 
senses  have  a  particular  place  of  residence,  this  is  diffused  through 
the  whole  body,  and  is  peculiarly  fine  at  the  extremities.  Our 
feeling  is  finely  tempered  between  the  extremes  ;  neither  so  acute 
as  in  the  eye,'  nor  so  obtuse  as  in  the  heel ;  for  the  one  would  pro- 
duce continual  pain,  and  the  other  would  quite  benumb  the  body, 
and  almost  annihilate  the  touch.  Indeed  all  our  senses  are  most 
precisely  fitted  to  our  exigencies ;  were  any  strained  higher,  they 
would  be  the  avenues  of  anguish ;  were  they  relaxed  into  greater 
insensibility,  they  would  be  useless  incumbrances. 

The  taste,  touch,  and  smell,  are  straitened  in  their  operations, 
and  perceive  nothing  but  what  is  brought  to  their  very  doors.  The 
ear,  indeed,  has  a  larger  circle  of  objects  ;  but  the  sight  most  amply 
supplies  whatever  is  wanting  in  the  others,  spreading  itself  into  an 
infinite  number  of  bodies,  and  bringing  to  our  notice  some  of  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  universe. 

The  eye  extends  its  observations  as  far  as  the  orbit  of  the  Geor- 
gium  Sidus  ;  nay,  glances  at  an  instant  of  time  to  the  inconceivable 
distance  of  the  stars — 

"  O'er  all  surrounding  things  that  curious  rove ; 
.That  loves  the  sky,  uplifts  its  look  sublime, 
The  stars  peruses,  and  can  clearly  read, 
In  nature's  various  volume  round  it  spread 
In  radiant  letters  writ,  the  Name  Divine." 

FAWCET. 

But  the  crowning  gift,  which  improves  the  satisfaction,  and 
augments  the  beneficial  effects  accruing  from  all  the  senses,  is 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  21 

speech  j  this  makes  us  gainers  from  the  eyes  and  ears  of  others, 
from  the  ideas  they  conceive  and  the  observations  they  make. 
The  tongue  has  neither  bone  nor  joint,  yet  fashions  itself  with  the 
utmost  volubility,  into  every  shape  and  posture,  which  can  express 
sentiment,  or  constitute  harmony.  :>,J 

By  this  little  collection  of  muscular  fibres,  we  communicate  the 
secrets  of  the  breast,  and  make  our  thoughts  audible.  By  this  we 
should  instruct  the  ignorant,  comfort  the  distressed,  glorify  God, 
which  is  its  noblest  employ,  and  benefit  each  other. 

As  the  tongue  requires  a  full  scope  and  easy  play,  it  is  lodged  in 
an  ample  cavity,  and  surrounded  with  reservoirs  of  spittle  (saliva), 
always  ready  to  distil  the  lubricating  fluid.  It  moves  under  a  con- 
cave roof  which  serves  as  a  sounding  board  to  the  voice,  giving  it 
much  the  same  additional  vigor  and  grace  as  the  shell  of  a  violin 
adds  to  the  strings.  The  notes  of  the  human  voice,*  so  far  as  they 
can  reach  are  the  most  agreeable  of  all  musical  sounds. 

THE   MIND. 

However  we  admire  this  multiplicity  of  animated  organs,  their 
finished  form,  and  their  faultless  order ;  yet  admiration  must  rise 
higher  when  we  recollect  the  mysterious  power  and  sway  the  soul 
has  over  them.  Ten  thousand  reins  are  put  into  her  hands ;  she 
is  not  acquainted  with  their  offices,  their  use,  or  their  name,  yet  she 
manages  all  without  perplexity  ;  the  manner  in  which  the  will  acts 
upon  the  system,  or  how,  or  by  what  means,  so  many  functions 
are  managed  independent  of  the  will,  or  that  a  variety  of  exertions 
should  be  made  without  inconvenience  to  us,  we  know  notf — all  we 
can  do  is  to  exercise  our  wronder  and  gratitude  for  so  many  circum- 
stances, which  all  administer  to  our  comfort. 

SOCIAL    AFFECTIONS. 

A  celebrated  poet  remarks,  that  the  proper  study  of  mankind 
is  man :  and  this  study  originates  from  the  smallest  beginnings, 

*  Lavater  considers  the  human  voice  as  an  indication  of  character.  See  Vol.  I.,  p. 
49  ;  Vol.  II.,  p.  54,  8vo.  edition.  Robinson's,  1789. 

t  "  The  principle  of  muscular  motion,  viz.  upon  what  cause  the  swelling  of 
the  belly  of  the  muscle,  and  consequent  contraction  of  its  tendons,  either  by  an  act  of 
the  will,  or  by  involuntary  irritation,  depends,  is  wholly  unknown  to  us.  The  substance 
employed,  whether  it  be  fluid,  gaseous,  elastic,  electrical,  or  none  of  these,  or  nothing 
resembling  these,  is  also  unknown  to  us.  We  see  nothing  similar  to  this  contraction 
in  any  machine  which  we  can  make,  or  any  process  which  we  can  execute."  Cuvier's 
Lectures,  Translated  by  Mr.  Ross,  2  vols.,  8vo.,  Longman,  1802 — a  work  displaying  an 
infinite  variety  of  facts  relative  to  Comparative  Anatomy. 


22  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

enlarges  as  the  faculties  of  the  mind  unfold  themselves,  and  com- 
prehends in  its  progress  all  the  powers  and  principles  which  actuate 
human  nature,  through  the  successive  stages  of  existence.  In 
infancy,  the  appetites  and  senses  are  developed,  exercised,  and 
strengthened  ;  they  give  information  of  surrounding  objects,  excite 
attention,  complacency,  surprise,  and  admiration  ;  and  the  notices 
they  bring  are  treasured  in  the  store-house  of  the  memory.  By  the 
frequent  repetition  of  agreeable  impressions,  certain  objects  become 
pleasing  and  familiar  to  the  young  spectator.  He  distinguishes  his 
parents,  brothers,  and  sisters  ;  is  uneasy  when  they  are  absent,  and 
delighted  to  see  them  again.  These  emotions  soon  constitute  a 
moral  attachment,  which  reciprocal  endearments  heighten,  grati- 
tude confirms,  and  habit  renders  indissoluble.  The  amusements  of 
childhood,  and  the  active  pursuits  of  youth,  add,  every  day,  some 
new  link  to  the  great  chain  of  social  love.*  Connexions  are  mul- 
tiplied, common  interests  established,  mutual  dependencies  created, 
and  the  principles  of  sympathy,  friendship,  generosity,  and  benevo- 
lence acquire  vigor  by  exertion,  and  energy  by  being  uncontrolled. 
The  powers  of  the  understanding  and  imagination  now  expand 
themselves;  curiosity  is  awakened,  and  directed  to  other  objects 
besides  those  of  sense  ;  emulation  rouses  ;  the  thirst  of  knowledge 
stimulates,  and  the  taste  for  beauty,  in  all  her  varied  forms,  allures 
the  mind  to  study  and  contemplation.  The  scenes  of  nature  at 
this  period  of  life  are  viewed  with  peculiar  admiration  and  delight ; 
and  the  signs  of  order,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  which  are  every- 
where discerned,  should  elevate  the  ideas  to  the  great  parent  of  the 
universe.  Devotion  glows  in  the  heart,  reverence  fills  the  thoughts, 
and  piety  exalts  the  soul  to  an  intercourse  with  God. 

Cherish,  generous  youth,  the  sacred  flame,  thus  kindled  in  thy 
breast — it  will  be  a  light  to  thy  feet,  and  a  lamp  to  thy  path  ;  will 
illuminate  thy  faculties ;  cultivate  thy  virtues ;  add  lustre  to  thy 
prosperity  ;  and  dispel,  with  cheering  beams,  the  gloom  of  sorrow 
and  adversity.  . 

In  manhood,  the  pursuit  of  wealth  or  of  honor,  the  diversified 
offices  of  each  particular  rank  and  station,  call  forth  into  exertion 
other  passions,  or  vary  the  force  and  direction  of  those  already 
experienced. 

OLD  AGE. 

Old  age  at  length  creeps  slowly  on  :f  the  generous  affections 

*  Pereival. 

t  According  to  a  calculation  founded  on  the  burial  registers,  only  one  man  out  of 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  23 

< 

abate  in  their  vigor  and  warmth,  and  anxiety,  suspicion,  fearful- 
ness,  and  the  love  of  money,  by  insensible  degrees,  too  often  take 
possession  of  the  mind.  Life  often  increases  in  value  the  nearer 
the  conclusion  of  it  approaches ;  and  the  means  of  enjoyment  be- 
come most  prized,  when  the  end,  for  which  they  are  designed, 
ceases  to  be  attainable.  Such  are  generally  the  weaknesses  of 
declining  nature ;  which,  though  wisdom  condemns,  she  forbids  us 
not  to  pity. 

"  The  seven  first  -years  of  life,  man's  break  of  day, 
Gleams  of  short  sense,  a  dawn  of  thought  display : 
"When  fourteen  springs  have  bloom'd  his  downy  cheek, 
His  soft  and  bashful  meanings  learn  to  speak : 
From  twenty-one  proud  manhood  takes  its  date, 
Yet  is  not  strength  complete  till  twenty-eight ; 
Thence 'to  hisfive-and-thirtieth,  life's  gay  fire 
Sparkles  and  burns  bright  in  fierce  desire : 
At  forty-two  his  eyes  grave  wisdom  wear, 
And  the  dark  future  dims  him  o'er  with  care : 
With  forty-nine  behold  his  toils  increase,      --_,,-*  -    : 
And  busy  hopes  and  fears  disturb  his  peace  ;•  3|j|f|£ 
At  fifty-six,  cool  reason  reigns  entire, 
Then  life  burns  steady  and  with  temp'rate  fire ; 
But  sixty-three  unbends  the  body's  strength 
Ere  th'  unwearied  mind  has  run  her  length ; 
And  when  from  seventy  age  surveys  her  last, 
Tir'd  she  stops  short,  and  wishes  all  were  past." 

Thus  we  see  the  life  of  man  in  its  different  stages  ;  it  begins  from 
the  cradle ;  pleasing  childhood  succeeds,  then  active  hot-blooded 
youth — afterwards  manhood,  firm,  severe,  deliberative,  and  intent 
upon  self-preservation ;  lastly,  debilitating  old  age  steals  on  with 
silent  steps,  and  renders  us  a  foetus  of  eternity  ! 

Happy  is  he  who,  having  studied  the  complicated  history  of  man, 
knows  the  subordination,  and  holds  the  balance  of  his  several 
moral  and  intellectual  faculties  ;  who  can  gratify  and  yet  regulate 
his  appetites;  indulge,  but  moderate  his  passions;  and  setting 
bounds  to  all,  maintain  inviolate  the  supremacy  of  reason. 

To  conclude— What  a  multiplicity  of  the  operations  of  the  sys- 
tem !  Some  fluids  move  slowly,  others  faster,  others  with  the 
celerity  of  electricity  or  lightning :  as  the  blood  running  into 
ten  thousand  rivulets,  pouring  into  every  part  of  the  body 
with  great  power;  hundreds  of  muscles  ready  to  obey  the  will 
with  instantaneous  speed ;  and  then,  above  all,  the  powers  of  the 

3,125  lives  to  a  hundred  years  of  age.— Chronolog.  Tablets,  Vernor  and  Hood,  1801. 
It  is  calculated  that  on  the  globe  500,000  human  beings  die  every  day ! 


24  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

mind — all  proclaiming  the  power  and  omnipresence  of  Deity,  who 
carries  this  globe  and  its  furniture  eighty-six  thousand  miles  per 
hour. 

On  reviewing  the  mechanism  of  the  heart,  for  instance,  every 
reflective  mind  must  be  struck  with  the  admirable  adaptation  and 
suitableness  of  its  several  parts,  and  also  the  harmony  of  its  opera- 
tions. How  important  is  the  least  part  of  its  complex  machinery  ! 
If  but  a  thread  connected  with  the  valves  be  broken,  or  one  of  its 
slightest  members  burst ;  if  a  single  valve  omitted  to  fall  down 
before  the  retrograde  current  of  blood,  or  become  inverted,  the 
vital  functions  could  no  longer  be  carried  on ;  the  vast  machine  of 
the  whole  animal  frame  would  be  immediately  deratfged,  and  death 
necessarily  ensue.  Who  would  suppose  that  an  apparatus  so  com- 
plex, so  easily  disarranged,  and  which  is  thrown  into  action  con- 
siderably more  than  100,000  times  a  day,  should  continue  un- 
impaired, by  day  and  night,  sleep  or  awake,  for  eighty  or  one 
hundred  years,  constituting,  as  it  were,  a  perpetual  motion ! 

There  is  a  variety  and  elegance  in  the  texture  of  the  human 
frame,  in  the  formation  and  arrangement  of  the  bones  and  muscles, 
the  arteries  and  veins,  far  beyond  any  comparison,  all  acting 
together  in  such  a  mysterious  way  as  to  render  us  a  wonder  to 
ourselves. 

God  of  perfection  !  how  benevolently  hast  thou  displayed  thyself 
in  man  !  Behold  the  human  body  1  that  fair  investiture  of  all  that 
is  most  beauteous.  Unity  in  variety  !  variety  in  unity !  What 
elegance,  what  propriety,  what  symmetry  through  all  the  forms,  all 
the  members  !  How  imperceptible,  how  infinite  are  the  gradations 
that  constitute  this  beauteous  whole  ! 

How  sublimely  does  Shakspeare  express  himself — "  What  a 
piece  of  work  is  man!  how  noble  in  reason !  how  infinite  in  faculty! 
in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable !  in  action  how 
like  an  angel !  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god  ! — the  beauty  of  the 
world,  the  paragon  of  animals  !" 

Says  Feltham — However  elevated  and  curious  the  study  of  any 
part  of  the  visible  creation  may  be,  and  though  every  branch  of 
natural  philosophy  alike  displays  the  benevolence  and  perfection 
of  the  Deity,  yet  of  all  the  parts  of  science,  our  present  researches 
are  justly  entitled  to  a  pre-eminence. 

Consider  the  parts  and  structure  of  the  body!  Is  not  the  body 
of  man  the  noblest  piece  of  animal  mechanism  possible  in  nature  ? 
does  it  not  really  transcend  the  power  and  thought  of  man  to 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF   THE    HUMAN    SYSTEM.  2 

imagine  any  form  or  structure  more  perfect,  more  elegant,  more 
grand  and  commodious  7  What  do  you  judge  of  man's  erect  pos- 
ture ?  his  beauteous  shape  ^  his  proper  stature  1  the  structure  and 
accuracy  of  its  parts  7  the  fitness  of  every  part  to  its  office  and 
end  1  What  sparkling  brightness  in  the  eyes  !  what  sweet  melody 
in  the  voice  !  how  quick  the  ears  to  receive  all  manner  of  sounds  ! 
how  nicely  adjusted  are  the  palate  and  taste  to  all  sorts  of  food ! 
What  a  noble  instrument  is  the  tongue  !  hence  speech  and  elo- 
quence, oratory  and  persuasion.  What  wonders  appear  in  the  hand 
of  man !  its  formation  and  astonishing  variety^  of  uses !  what 
majesty  in  thence  /  how  immensely  different  are  the  countenances 
of  men  !  what  endless  differences  in  their  voices  and  hand- writing  I 
What  a  striking  proof  of  God  in  the  soul  of  man  ! 

The  powers  of  man's  mind  show  him  to  be  almost  a  divine  exist- 
ence. Se  thinks  ;  he  is  conscious  of  internal  acts  ;  he  forms  ideas 
of  all  things ;  he  reasons  on  his  thoughts  ;  he  perceives  an  infinite 
variety  of  objects  ;  he  reflects  on  these  images  of  things  in  his 
mind  ;  he  re-collects  his  thoughts,  and  surveys  their  agreement  with 
objects  and  their  difference  from  each  other ;  he  brings  all  past 
ages,  and  time  present,  to  his  mind,  and  views  the  transactions  of 
men  and  revolutions  of  empires  for  thousands  of  years  \  he  can 
recollect  a  thousand,  ten  thousand,  a  million  facts  at  once ;  he 
makes  them  pass  in  quick  succession  before  the  eyes  of  his  mind  ; 
he  marks  the  different  natures  and  tendency  of  men's  actions; 
sees  how  one  kind  have  a  direct  influence  upon  his  peace  and  hap- 
piness, while  others  issue  in  ruin,  devastation,  and  death.  He 
commands  the  future  time  to  the  present  view  of  his  vast  and 
mighty  mind ;  foretells  the  consequences  of  actions  ;  penetrates  the 
dark,  veil  of  future  ages,  calculates  or  predicts  the  wonders  of  an 
eclipse  for  hundreds  of  years  past  or  to  come,*  and  dives  into  the 
condition  of  men  for  ten  thousand  years  to  come.  He  pursues  a 
mental  tour  round  the  earth,  and  ranges  his  thoughts  all  over  the 
skies  :  he  roves  from  planet  to  planet,  from  sun  to  sun,  from  world 
to  world,  almost  to  infinity  !  How  great  is  the  resemblance  of  the 
human  soul  to  God !  His  existence  and  omnipresent  agency  is 
clearly  seen  in  it.  The  invisibility  of  the  soul  demonstrates  the 
invisible  God. 


26  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE   BONES. 

OF  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  the  bones  require  to  be  first  con- 
sidered, because  they  form  the  frame-work  whereon  all  the  soft  parts 
are  fixed,  and  determine  the  shape  and  size  of  the  whole.  They 
are  'the  hardest  and  most  durable  part  of  the  body,  and  are  found 
existing  ages  after  all  the  rest  has  long  mouldered  into  dust.  This 
hardness  and  durability  depend  on  the  large  proportion  of  inor- 
ganic matter  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  bony  tissue,  the 
great  quantity  of  lime  which  is  mingled  in  it.  The  animal  and 
earthy  parts  of  bone  can  be  easily  separated  and  demonstrated  in  a 
separate  state.  If  a  piece  of  bone  be  immersed  for  a  day  or  two  in 
diluted  muriatic  acid,  the  earthy  part  will  be  completely  dissolved 
out,  and  the  animal  part  will  be  left,  yet  the  bone  will  still  have  the 
same  size  and  the  same  shape,  so  intimately  are  the  two  different 
materials  blended  together,  and  may  be  tied  in  a  knot  as  represented 
in  the  following  figure.  If  it  be  now  dried  and  weighed  it  will 


be  found  to  have  lost  nearly  two-thirds  of  its  original  weight,  the 
loss  consisting  of  the  earthy  particles.  The  substance  now  ob- 
tained is  the  cartilage  of  bone,  which  is  very  nearly  the  same  in 
composition  as  the  cartilages  which  we  find  ready  formed  by  nature 
in  the  body.  It  is  much  softer  than  bone,  but  harder  than  any  of 
the  other  soft  parts ;  it  is  highly  elastic,  and  if  compressed  or  bent, 
speedily  regains  its  original  shape.  When  dried,  it  assumes  a 
darker  color,  and  becomes  hard  and  tough,  translucent,  and  very 
like  horn.  When  boiled,  this  substance  is  nearly  all  dissolved, 


FIG.  1      A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  MALE  SKELETON. 


HEAD  AND  RECK. 

a,  The  frontal  bone 
A,  The  parietal  bone. 
e,  The  temporal  bone. 

d,  A  portion  of  the  sphenoid 

bone. 

e,  The  nasal  bone. 

/,  The  malar,  or  cheek-bones 
g,  The  superior  maxillary, 

or  upper  jaw. 
A,  The  lower  jaw. 
»,  The  bones  of  the  neck. 

TKOHK. 

a,  The  twelve  bones  of  the 

back. 

A,  The  five  bones  of  the  loins 
e,  d,  The  breast-bone. 
e,f,  The  seven  true  ribs. 
g,  g.  The  five  false  ribs. 
k,  The  rump-bone  or  sacrum. 
i  The  hip-bones. 


VFFER  EXTREMITY. 

0,  The  collar-bone. 

A,  The  shoulder-blade. 

c,  The  upper  arm-bone. 

d,  The  radius. 

e,  The  ulna. 

f,  The  carpus,  or  wrist, 
f,  The  bones  of  the  hand. 
A,  1st  row  of  finger-bones. 

1,  2d  row  of  finger-bones, 
fc,  3d  row  of  finger-bones. 
/,  The  bones  of  the  thumb. 


LOWER  EXTREMITY. 

«.  The  thigh-bone. 
A,  The  knee-pan. 

e,  The  tibia,  or  large  bone 

of  the  leg. 
d,  The  fibula,  or  small  bone 

of  the  leg. 
r,  The  heel-bone. 

f,  The  bones  of  the  instep 
£,  The  bones  of  the  foot 

/»,  1st  row  of  toe-hones. 
»',  2d  row  of  toe-bones. 
*,  3d  row  of  toe-bones 


FIG.  2.     A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  MALE  SKELETON. 


a,  The  parietal  bone. 

b,  The  occipital  bone. 

c,  The  temporal  bone. 

d,  The  cheek-bone 

e,  The  lower  jaw-bone. 


NECK  AND  TRUBi*. 

a,  The  bones  of  the  neck 
fc,  The  bones  of  the  back 

c,  The  bones  of  the  loin« 

d,  The  hip-bone 

e,  The  sacrum. 


UPPER  EXTREMITY. 

a,  The  collar-bone 

J,  The  blade-bone. 

c,  The  upper  bone  of  the  arm 

t,  The  radius. 

«,  The  ulna. 

/,  The  bones  ofthe  wrist. 

g ,  The  bones  ofthe  hand. 

fc,  1st  row  of  finger-bones. 

t,  2d  row  of  finger-bones. 

fr,  3d  row  of  finger-bones. 

/,  The  bones  ofthe  thumb. 


LOWER  EXTREMITT. 

a,  The  thigh-bone. 

6,  The  large  bone  of  the  leg 

e,  The  small  bone  ofthe  le£ 

d,  The  heel-bone. 

e,  The  bones  ofthe  instep. 
/,  The  bones  ofthe  toes 


THE    BONES.  27 

yielding  a  firm  transparent  jelly ;  and  it  was  a  knowledge  of  this 
property  which  suggested  to  Papin  the  invention  of  his  digester,  in 
which,  by  boiling  bruised  bones  under  strong  pressure,  the  jelly  is 
obtained,  and  a  large  quantity  of  strong  soup  is  made  from  what 
would  otherwise  be  entirely  worthless.  The  earthy  part  of  the 
bone  is  demonstrated  in  a  different  manner.  If  a  bone  is  put  into 
a  clear  fire,  and  heated  to  redness,  the  animal  part  is  entirely  con- 
sumed, and  a  w^hite  friable  earth  is  left  behind.  This  earth  consists 
almost  wholly  of  lime,  in  combination  with  phosphoric  and  carbonic 
acids.  It  is  on  this  account  that  phosphorus  is  obtained  from  cal- 
cined bones.  There  are  minute  portions  of  other  salts  in  the  earthy 
part  of  bones,  but  these  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  mention  in 
detail.  When  a  bone  has  been  thus  treated,  and  is  weighed,  it  will 
be  found  about  one-third  lighter  than  at  first,  the  loss  consisting  of 
the  gelatinous  part.  And  as  was  remarked  of  the  gelatinous  part 
when  obtained  by  itself,  so  also  the  earthy  part  has  exactly  the 
original  shape  of  the  bone,  and  the  most  minute  bony  threads  are 
still  seen  existing. 

In  consequence  of  the  entry  of  these  two  very  different  substances 
into  the  formation  of  bone,  it  is  both  hard  and  elastic  ;  the  earthy 
part  bestowing  the  density,  the  animal  part  the  elasticity.  The 
hardness  is  indeed  its  most  remarkable  property,  in  consequence  of 
which  it  has  that  firmness  and  resistance  by  which  it  is  so  admirably 
adapted  for  the  offices  it  has  to  perform  in  the  animal  machine. 
The  hardness  varies  a  little  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  and 
usually  increases  with  age.  Bones  are  somewhat  flexible  and 
elastic,  this  elasticity  varying  however  in  different  situations.  We 
find  that  the  ribs  may  be  much  bent,  and  afterwards  recover  their 
form  perfectly.  Hence  boys  have  used  a  horse's  rib  for  a  bow. 
This  elasticity  frequently  saves  them  from  fractures,  and  lessens  the 
shock  which  would  otherwise  be  communicated  to  the  delicate 
structures  which  they  defend.  It  was  remarked  above,  that  in  old 
age  the  hardness  increases,  and  at  the  same  time  the  elasticity 
diminishes,  and  hence  the  reason  why  elderly  people  are  much, 
more  liable  to  have  their  bones  broken  than  young  ones.  A  child 
may  often  get  a  twist  which  will  bend  one  of  the  long  bones,  but 
instead  of  breaking,  it  recovers  its  proper  form,  if  not  immediately, 
at  least  shortly  after ;  while  in  an  old  person,  any  such  twist  is 
almost  invariably  followed  by  a  fracture.  The  color  of  bone  in  the 
living  person,  is  a  pale  rose  color,  inclining  in  early  life  to  red,  and 
in  old  age  to  a  yellowish  white.  When  bones  are  long  macerated 


28  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

in  water,  so  as  to  remove  entirely  the  blood  and  oil  which  pervade 
them,  they  become  of  a  beautiful  white. 

As  bones  are  living  parts,  they  of  necessity  are  provided  with 
blood-vessels  and  nerves.  On  the  surface  of  every  bone  may  be 
remarked  an  infinity  of  minute  pores,  into  which  small  blood-vessels 
run.  If  the  surface  of  a  bone  be  exposed  in  the  living  body  by  an 
injury,  it  will  be  seen  to  bleed,  and  it  can  be  colored  artificially. 
This  coloration,  however,  is  practicable  only  in  young  subjects, 
where  a  great  afflux  of  blood  takes  place  to  the  bones,  for  their 
growth ;  in  adult  years,  when  they  have  reached  their  full  size,  and 
have  become  hard  and  compact,  much  less  blood  in  proportion  cir- 
culates through  them.  There  is  another  very  curious  way  in  which 
the  vascularity  of  young  bones  can  be  demonstrated,  by  making  the 
blood  itself  the  vehicle  of  the  coloring  matter  with  which  they  are 
to  be  injected.  If  a  young  growing  animal  be  fed  for  a  fortnight  or 
so,  on  food  in  which  a  proportion  of  chopped  madder  is  mixed,  the 
coloring  principle  of  the  madder  will  pass  into  its  blood,  arrive  in 
its  bones,  and  there  chemically  combine  with  the  lime,  tinging  the 
bones  of  a  beautiful  rose  color,  which  is  permanent,  even  after  the 
bones  have  been  cleaned  and  well  washed  in  pure  water.  The 
nerves  which  are  distributed  to  bones  are  very  trifling,  so  that  in 
the  healthy  state  they  may  be  said  to  be  almost  insensible ;  but 
when  they  become  inflamed,  their  sensibility  is  so  much  exalted, 
that  the  slightest  touch  causes  excruciating  agony. 

The  bones  are  covered  with  a  dense  membrane  called  the  peri- 
osteum, which  adheres  strongly  to  them,  serves  to  convey  the  blood 
vessels  to  them,  and  sends  prolongations  into  all  the  little  holes 
which  exist  in  such  numbers  on  their  surfaces.  It  also  serves  as 
the  medium  for  the  attachment  of  tendons  and  ligaments  to  them, 
having  these  parts  in  a  manner  interwoven  and  confounded  with  its 
outer  surface.  The  periosteum  has  also  a  considerable  share  in 
the  growth  of  young  bones,  and  in  the  growth  or  reparation  of  old 
ones,  when  fractures  or  other  injuries  may  have  rendered  that  ne- 
cessary. 

Bones  assume  every  variety  of  shape,  as  may  be  expected  from 
the  various  places  and  offices  which  they  are  destined  to  fill. 
These  varieties  have  been  reduced  by  anatomists  to  four  classes  : 
1st,  the  long  or  cylindrical ;  2d,  the  broad  or  flat ;  3d,  the  short  or 
round  ;  and  4th,  the  mixed  or  irregular.  The  long  bones  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  length,  which  greatly  exceeds  their  other 
dimensions.  They  are  found  only  in  the  extremities,  and  are 


THE    BONES.  29 

adapted  for  locomotion,  and  for  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body. 
They  are  never  exactly  cylindrical,  being  smallest  about  the 
middle,  and  enlarged  at  each  end.  The  broad  or  flat  bones  are 
generally  somewhat  arched,  and  fitted  to  protect  delicate  organs  ; 
we  find  the  best  specimens  of  them  in  the  cranium.  The  short 
bones  are  of  irregular  figures,  but  all  somewhat  roundish  ;  they  are 
found  in  the  wrist  and  the  instep  of  the  foot.  The  mixed  or  irre- 
gular bones  are  usually  classed  with  the  short,  but  it  is  better  to 
separate  them ;  the  bones  of  the  spine  are  the  best  examples  of 
these.  The  ribs  and  bones  of  the  pelvis  may  also  be  ranged  with 
them,  combining  the  characters  of  the  two  preceding  classes. 

If  we  prepare  bones  by  careful  maceration  and  drying,  so  as  to 
remove  all  the  grease  from  them,  and  then  saw  them  up,  we 
observe  the  density  of  the  osseous  tissue  to  differ  very  much  in 
different  parts.  The  outer  part  is  much  harder  and  denser  than  the 
internal  part,  and  is  called  the  compact  substance.  The  internal 
part  is  of  a  looser  texture,  and  is  called  the  cancellated  or  spongy 
substance.  These  tissues  are  arranged  differently. in  the  different 
orders  of  bones. 


Appearance  of  a  bone  sawed  longitudinally. 


In  the  flat  bones,  the  compact  substance  is  arranged  into  two 
layers,  separated  by  a  thin  stratum  of  cancellated  structure,  in 
which  the  blood-vessels  of  the  bone  run.  Where  the  bone  is  very 
thin,  the  two  outer  layers  are  in  contact,  or  appear  compressed  into 
one,  and  the  intermediate  layer  has  disappeared.  In  the  round 
bones,  there  is  a  very  thin  layer  of  compact  tissue  on  the  outside, 
while  the  internal  part  is  composed  of  spongy  tissue.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  predominance  of  spongy  tissue,  and  consequently  of 
blood-vessels,  the  round  bones  are  much  more  liable  to  inflamma- 
tion than  any  of  the  others.  The  long  bones  consist  of  three  parts, 
a  shaft,  and  two  extremities ;  the  shaft  consists  of  very  dense 
compact  tissue  externally,  becoming  looser  internally,  and  having 
a  canal  running  through  them,  nearly  from  end  to  end  ;  while  the 
extremities  are  of  the  same  structure  as  the  short  bones.  The  canal 
which  runs  through  the  long  bones  is  lined  with  a  delicate  mem- 


30  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

brane,  in  which  is  contained  the  medulla  or  marrow.  The  medulla 
is  in  young  persons  of  a  bloody  nature,  in  old  persons  it  is  oily. 
The  canal  serves  to  make  the  bone  much  stronger  than  if  it  were 
solid  with  the  same  quantity  of  material ;  on  a  principle  which  is 
well  understood  by  machine  makers,  who  often  make  use  of  hollow 
pillars  and  shafts,  to  gain  additional  strength  without  additional 
expense.  The  marrow  is  put  into  the  canals,  not  to  oil  the  bones, 
as  many  people  erroneously  suppose,  but  because  there  is  no  empty 
space  permitted  in  the  body,  and  fatty  matter  is  the  lightest  that 
could  be  used  for  filling  them.  •  Besides,  the  marrow  serves  the 
same  purpose  as  the  fat  in  other  parts  of  the  body  ;  it  is  a  store  of 
nourishment  whence  the  body  can  be  supported  when  unable  to 
take  any  nourishment  from  without.  In  fevers,  for  instance,  where 
the  patient  scarcely  tastes  food  for  perhaps  three  weeks,  he  is  main- 
tained on  the  superfluous  parts  of  his  own  body,  and  hence  the 
sunken  cheeks  and  shrunk  shanks  of  such  a  sufferer  when  begin- 
ning to  recover.  That  this  marrow  is  not  of  any  use  to  the  bone 
itself  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact,  that  in  birds  there  is  none, 
but  the  bones  are  very  thin  and  their  canals  large  in  order  to  be 
light,  and  instead  of  marrow,  they  are  filled  with  air.  There  is  a 
common  notion  that  the  marrow  is  exceedingly  sensible,  and  per- 
sons remark  how  painful  the  application  of  a  saw  must  be  in  an 
amputation,  from  its  tearing  through  the  marrow.  Now  the  fact  is, 
that  the  marrow  is  very  little  if  at  all  sensible,  and  all  the  pain  felt 
in  sawing  the  bone  is  a  sort  of  jarring  communicated  to  the  soft  parts 
which  have  been  already  divided. 

The  irregular  bones,  resembling  in  shape  two  or  more  of  the 
preceding  orders,  have  some  of  their  parts  resembling  the  round 
bones,  and  others  resembling  the  long  and  flat. 

Where  the  bones  touch  one  another,  they  are  particularly  smooth, 
and  their  surfaces  are  adapted  to  one  another.  Besides,  to  obviate 
friction,  they  are  covered  at  these  places  with  cartilage  or  gristle. 
Cartilage  is  intermediate  in  hardness  to  bone  and  what  are  properly 
called  the  soft  parts,  it  is  firm  and  resisting,  and  yet  it  has  a  great 
degree  of  elasticity.  In  some  parts  of  the  body  we  have  cartilages 
serving  for  continuations  to  bones,  such  as  those  which  continue 
the  ribs,  and  connect  them  to  the  breast-bone,  and  they  are  exactly 
similar  to  bones  from  which  the  earthy  part  has  been  dissolved  out 
by  an  acid.  But  the  cartilaginous  crusts  which  cover  the  articular 
ends  of  bones  are  of  a  very  beautiful  and  peculiar  structure.  When 
a  portion  of  bone  with  its  cartilage  has  been  macerated  in  water  for 


THE    BONES. 


31 


some  weeks,  the  cartilage  is  found  to  have  lost  its  cohesion  and  its 
smooth  surface,  and  appears  exactly  as  if  the  bone  had  been  covered 
with  white  velvet.  It  is  seen  to  consist  of  an  infinity  of  fibres 
set  perpendicularly  on  the  surface  of  the  bone,  so  that  when  pres- 
sure is  made  on  their  ends,  they  yield  by  bending  a  little  sideways, 
but  are  prevented  from  yielding  much,  by  the  closeness  with  which 
they  are  set  together.  In  effect,  the  result  is  just  what  is  seen  on  a 
larger  scale,  if  the  finger  is  pressed  against  the  surface  of  a  common 
flat  cloth  brush,  the  bristles  bending  a  little  sideways,  and  so  pre- 
senting an  indentation  on  the  surface. 

The  account  which  has  now  been  given  of  the  nature  of  bones,  as 
a  tissue,  is  applicable  not  only  to  those  of  man,  but  of  all  the  other 
mammalia,  and  of  birds.  In  the  arrangement  of.  the  bones,  how- 
ever, every  species  differs  from  the  rest,  according  to  the  purposes 
which  its  body  and  limbs  are  to  serve.  The  bones  united  in  their 
places  constitute  the  skeleton. 

The  SKELETON  consists  of  the  head,  trunk,  and  extremities.  The 
trunk  is  composed  of  the  spine,  the  ribs,  the  sternum  or  breast-bone, 
and  the  pelvis,  supporting  the  head  upon  its  upper  end,  and  resting 
its  lower  end  on  the  heads  of  the  thigh-bones.  The  extremities  are 
four,  two  superior,  commonly  called  in  man  the  arms,  two  inferior, 
commonly  called  the  legs ;  but  in  strict  anatomical  language,  the 
word  leg  is  applied  only  to  the  part  below  the  knee,  the  part  above 
being  always  spoken  of  as  the  thigh  ;  and  the  part  above  the  elbow 
only  is  called  the  arm,  the  part  below  the  elbow  being  the  forearm. 
We  will  now  examine  these  parts  in  succession  more  minutely. 

The  spine  is  the  central  column,  resting  on  the  pelvis  and  thigh 
bones,  and  supporting  the  chest,  the  head,  and  the  superior  ex- 
tremities. It  is  about  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  whole  body, 
so  that  in  a  man  who  stands  six  feet  high,  the  spine  will  be  found, 
about  two  feet  long.  It  consists  of  twenty-four  pieces  or  vertebra?, 
named  from  the  Latin  word  vertere,  to  turn,  on  account  of  their 
mobility.  The  largest  is  placed  below,  and  they  diminish  gra- 
dually to  near  the  top.  Each  vertebra  is  a  mixed  bone  in  its 
structure,  and  has  a  body  and  processes;  the  word  process  in 
anatomy  signifying  a  projection  or  prominence.  The  body  of  each 
vertebra  is  of  the  nature  of  a  short  bone,  spongy  in  its  texture,  and 
very  light.  It  is  semicircular,  or  nearly  so,  flat  above  and  below, 
where  it  supports  and  rests  upon  its  neighbors.  In  the  accompany- 
ing cut,  B  represents  the  body  of  the  vertebra  with  its  flat  surface 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


turned  towards  the  reader.  From  the  back  of  the  body,  the  arch, 
A,  of  the  vertebra  springs,  enclosing  a  space  which  is  occupied  by 
the  spinal  marrow.  Then  to  serve  as  levers,  for  the  purpose  of 
bending  and  turning  the  spine,  we  have  two  transverse  processes, 
passing  out  one  on  each  side,  and  the  spinous  process  passing 
backward,  forming  the  chain  of  projections  felt  under  the  skin, 
which  give  the  name  to  the  whole  column.  These  four-and-twenty 
pieces  are  joined  together,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  little  motion,  and  but 
little,  at  any  one  joint,  that  the  spinal  marrow  which  passes  down 
through  the  canal  formed  by  the  apposition  of  the  different  rings, 
may  not  be  injured  by  too  sudden  a  twist,  but  that  the  curves  which 
it  forms  in  the  various  motions  of  the  body  may  be  gradual. 

Even  when  at  rest,  the  spine  is  not  straight,  but  curved  in  three 
different  places.  First,  it  curves  forward  where  it  rests  on  the 
pelvis,  that  it  may  not  be  exposed  to  too  rough  a  shock  when  we 
begin  to  move,  from  being  in  a  state  of  rest.  Secondly,  it  curves 
backward  in  the  region  of  the  back,  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the 
chest,  in  which  the  heart  and  lungs  are  to  be  lodged.  Thirdly, 
it  curves  forward  again  in  the  neck  in  order  to  bring  the  weight  of 
the  head  which  rests  on  it,  over  the  point  of  support  between  the 
feet.  Three  regions  are  distinguished  in  the  spine,  first  the  cervical, 
or  that  of  the  neck,  consisting  of  seven  vertebrae  ;  second,  the 
dorsal,  or  that  of  the  back,  consisting  of  twelve ;  and  third,  the 
lumbar,  or  that  of  the  loins,  consisting  of  five.  The  vertebrae  of 
the  loins  are  the  most  movable ;  it  is  here  that  the  turning  and 
bending  of  the  trunk  chiefly  take  place,  and  consequently  it  is  to 
this  region  that  injuries  are  the  most  apt  to  occur. 

To  the  twelve  vertebra  of  the  back  the  ribs  are  attached,  twelve 
on  each  side,  in  order  to  form  the  chest.  It  has  often  been  asked 
whether  it  were  true  that  men  had  a  rib  fewer  than  women,  in 
consequence  of  the  rib  having  been  taken  from  Adam's  side  of 
which  his  wife  was  to  be  formed.  Of  this  it  may  be  said,  that 


THE    BONES.  33 

whatever  the  deficiency  was  in  Adam's  own  person,  it  has  not  de- 
scended to  his  male  children. 

The  ribs  become  gradually  longer  from  the  first  to  the  seventh, 
and  from  that  shorter  again  to  the  twelfth.  The  ten  upper  ribs  are 
connected  to  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  in  front,  by  means  of  their 
cartilages,  which  it  has  already  been  remarked,  give  elasticity  to 
the  walls  of  the  chest.  The  lowest  two,  which  are  not  attached  in 
front,  are  called  the  floating  ribs.  The  heads  of  the  ribs  behind 
are  connected  to  the  vertebra  by  a  kind  of  hinge  joint,  which 
allows  the  ribs  to  move  up  and  down  in  the  action  of  breathing. 
Each  rib  passes  from  its  attachment  downwards,  outwards,  and 
forwards  ;  so  that  when  lifted  up  by  the  muscles  of  inspiration  it 
at  the  same  time  is  carried  outwards,  and  so  enlarges  the  capacity 
of  the  chest. 

The  sternum  or  breast-bone  is  about  seven  inches  long,  about  two 
broad  above,  and  one  below,  and  ends  in  a  movable  point  formed 
of  cartilage.  It  is  smooth  and  convex  in  front,  gives  the  pro- 
minence to  the  front  of  the  chest,  and  projects  conspicuously  in 
some  individuals,  who  are  thence  commonly  called  pigeon-breasted. 
It  has  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  inserted  into  its  edges ;  it  has  a 
hollow  in  its  upper  part  to  make  room  for  the  trachea  or  windpipe 
to  pass  down  behind  it,  and  to  its  two  upper  corners  the  two  collar- 
bones are  attached. 

The  chest  viewed  as  a  whole,  is  conical,  the  apex  of  the  cone 
being  above,  and  the  base  below ;  the  aperture  above  is  small, 
about  four  inches  across,  and  twa  from  before  backward,  allowing 
the  windpipe  and  oesophagus,  or  gullet,  and  the  great  veins  of  the 
arms  and  head  to  pass  down,  and  their  arteries  to  pass  up.  The 
inferior  opening  of  the  chest  is  large,  and  is  filled  by  a  muscle 
named  the  diaphragm,  a  Greek  word  which  literally  means  the  par- 
tition, because  it  separates  the  belly  from  the  chest ;  forming  a  roof 
for  the  one,  and  a  floor  for  the  other.  The  chest  is  considerably 
deeper  behind  than  in  front,  and  the  edges  of  the  cartilages  of  the 
ribs  can  be  felt,  and  in  a  thin  person  seen,  passing  upwards  from 
the  flanks,  and  meeting  at  an  angle  at  the  breast-bone,  leaving  a 
hollow  between  them,  which  is  known  as  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

The  next  division  of  the  trunk  is  called  the  pelvis  or  basin,  which 
consists  of  a  circle  of  large  ffrm  bones,  situated  between  the  lower 
portion  of  the  trunk  and  the  inferior  extremities.  They  are  the 
sacrum,  the  coccyx,  the  ilium,  the  ischium,  and  the  pubis.  The 
ilium  forms  the  upper,  the  ischium  the  lower,  while  the  pubis  is 
3 


34  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

situated  at  the  fore  part  of  the  pelvis ;  and  each  one  of  these  bones 
contributes  to  form  the  large  and  deep  socket,  for  the  head  of  the 
thigh  bone.  The  pelvis  not  only  affords  lodgment  for  the  organs 
contained  within  its  cavity,  but  it  also  sustains  the  entire  weight  of 
the  body,  and  furnishes  sockets  for  the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones  to 
roll  in,  and  a  broad  surface  for  numerous  muscles  to  spring  from. 


a  d.  Ilium.    E.  Os  Coccyx.    G.  Femur.    H.  Pubes.    u  u.  Foramen  ovalc. 

The  pelvis  is  so  named,  because  it  is  somewhat  like  a  basin,  only 
it  has  a  wide  aperture  in  the  bottom,  through  which  the  canals  from 
the  bowels,  the  bladder,  and  in  the  female  from  the  womb,  make 
their  exit.  It  consists  of  three  pieces,  two  haunch-bones  and  the 
rump-bone,  in  vulgar  language. 

The  head  is  placed  upon  the  end  of  the  spinal  column,  in  order 
that  the  brain  which  is  contained  in  it  may  be  connected  with 
the  spinal  marrow ;  and  upon  its  upper  end,  that  the  eyes  which 
are  set  in  it  may  enjoy  the  widest  possible  range.  It  consists  of 
two  parts,  the  cranium  and  the  face ;  the  former  for  containing  the 
brain,  the  latter  for  the  organs  of  sight,  smell,  and  taste.  The 
cranium  is  very  nearly  of  the  shape  of  an  egg,  the  large  end  being 
backward,  and  the  small  one  forward,^>resenting  thus  the  characters 
and  having  the  strength  of  a  double  dome.  The  upper  dome  is 
stronger,  however,  than  the  lower  one,  and  hence  we  find  that 
when  a  man  falls  from  a  height  on  his  head,  the  fracture  is  most 


THE    BONES.  35 

frequently  not  at  the  part  struck,  but  at  the  base,  where  it  is  com- 
pletely out  of  the  reach  of  the  surgeon.  The  face  cannot  be  com- 
pared to  any  known  regular  form  ;  it  is  excavated  by  several  cavi- 
ties, one  large  one  for  the  mouth,  another  of  considerable  size  for 
the  nose,  and  two  smaller  pyramidal  ones  for  the  eyes,  called  the 
orbit.  The  number  of  bones  in  the  head  is  twenty-two. 


F.  the  Frontal  Bone.  P.  Parietal  Bone.  T.  Temporal  Bone.  O.  Occipital.  S. 
Sphenoid.  C.  Cheek-bone.  J.  Upper  Jaw  Bone.  L.  J.  Lower  Jaw  Bone.  N.  Nasal 
Bone.  L.  Lacrymal  Bone.  E.  Hole  leading  into  the  Ear. 

The  cranium  or  brain  case  is  composed  of  eight  bones,  which  are 
mostly  of  a  flattened  form,  convex  externally,  and  concave  internally 
The  frontal  bone  forms  the  forehead,  and  the  roofs  of  the  orbits ; 
the  occipital  bone  forms  the  back  and  under  part  of  the  head,  and  in 
this  bone  is  the  large  hole  through  which  the  spinal  marrow  passes 
down  from  the  brain.  The  two  parietal  bones  meet  in  the  middle 
above,  and  form  the  upper  and  lateral  parts  of  the  head ;  in  the 
centre  of  each  is  a  protuberance  giving  the  greatest  breadth  to  the 
head,  rather  further  back  than  its  middle.  The  temporal  bones  are 
named  from  the  Latin  word  tempus,  signifying  time,  because  on  the 
hair  covering  them,  the  traces  of  time  are  first  manifested.  They 
are  placed  one  on  each  side,  occupying  the  inferior  lateral  parts  of 
the  cranium,  and  extending  into  its  base.  In  each  is  seen  the 
funnel-shaped  opening  which  admits  the  waves  of  the  air  to  the 
drum  of  the  ear,  called  the  external  auditory  canal,  to  the  edges  of 
which  the  external  ear  is  appended.  The  hard  part  of  each,  ex- 
tending into  the  base  of  the  cranium,  contains  the  proper  or^r^x  of 


36  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

hearing.  The  two  remaining  bones  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the 
cranium,  and  belong  equally  to  it  and  to  the  face.  The  ethmoid 
or  sieve-like  bone  is  so  named  on  account  of  its  upper  plate  being 
perforated  with  forty  or  fifty  holes,  through  which  the  twigs  of  the 
olfactory  nerves  pass  into  the  nose.  The  sphenoid,  or  wedge-like 
bone,  is  named,  not  from  any  similarity  to  a  wedge  in  shape,  but 
from  its  being  wedged  in  among  so  many  other  bones ;  for  ft  is 
united  to  the  other  seven  bones  of  the  cranium,  and  to  five  of  the 
face. 

The  vault  of  the  cranium  is  smooth  and  regular  where  it  forms 
a  roof  for  the  protection  of  the  brain ;  the  floor  of  it  is  divided  into 
six  pits  or  deep  hollows,  for  containing  the  different  lobes  of  the 
brain.  Numerous  holes  exist  in  the  base  of  the  cranium,  for  the 
entrance  of  the  nourishing  arteries  of  the  brain,  for  the  exit  of  its 
veins,  and  for  the  exit  of  the  numerous  nerves  which  are  to  con- 
nect the  brain  with  the  organs  of  the  senses,  and  with  the  other 
parts  of  the  body.  The  following  figure  represents  the  sutures  of 
the  cranium  separated,  after  Beuchene,  of  Paris.  I  have  a  beauti- 
ful preparation  of  this  kind  in  my  Anatomical  Museum. 


Side  view  of  the  Cranium.  1.  Frontal  Bone.  2.  Parietal.  3.  Occipital.  4.  Tem- 
poral. 5.  Nasal.  6.  Malar.  7.  Superior  Maxillary.  .8.  CJnguis.  9.  Inferior 
Maxillary. 

The  shane  ot  the  head,  as  well  as  its  size,  varies  greatly  in  dif- 


THE    BONES.  37 

ferent  individuals.  There  are  also  national  peculiarities  in  the  form 
of  the  head,  constituting  a  well-marked-  national  feature.  Thus  the 
Caucasian  race,  to  whom  we  belong,  is  distinguished  by  the  beau- 
tiful oval  form  of  the  head.  To  this  race  the  most  civilized  nations 
belong,  and  those  which  have  ruled  over  the  others.  The  Mongo- 
lian race,  which  inhabits  China  and  Japan,  is  known  by  its  promi- 
nent cheek-bones,  flat  face,  narrow  and  oblique  eyes,  straight  and 
black  hair,  thin  beard,  and  olive  complexion. 

The  negro  race  has  a  compressed  skull  and  a  flattened  nose,  a 
prominent  mouth,  and  thick  lips  ;  thus  bearing  some  resemblance 
in  features  to  the  monkey  tribe.  The  North  American  Indian  has  a 
very  singular  shaped  head  ;  it  being  high  from  the  ear  upward,  and 
short  from  the  front  to  the  back.  The  forehead  is  not  as  largely  de- 
veloped as  in  the  Caucasian.  The  head  of  the  Hindoo  is  much 
smaller  than  that  of  the  European,  while  that  of  the  New-Hol- 
lander is  but  little  superior  to  that  of  the  ourang  outang,  who  roams 
the  same  forests  with  himself.  The  New  Zealanders  have  heads 
nearly  as  large  as  the  European  ;  but  the  forehead  is  low,  and  the 
great  preponderance  of  size  is  in  the  back  part  of  the  head. 

The  heads  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  appears  from  an  exa- 
mination of  mummies,  closely  resembled  in  shape  and  size  those  of 
modern  Europeans.  Some  of  our  North  American  Indians  are  in 
the  habit  of  flattening  their  heads  by  binding  a  piece  of  board  on 
the  fore  as  well  as  back  part  of  the  head,  in  infancy.  From  this 
custom,  one  tribe  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  has  received  the 
name  of  Flat  Head  Indians.  The  Choctawtribe  were  formerly  in 
the  habit  of  flattening  their  heads  in  the  same  way ;  but  for  some 
years  past  they  have  discontinued  the  practice.  The  heads  of  the 
different  European  nations  differ  somewhat  from  each  other  ;  but  a 
common  type  characterizes  them  all. 

Not  only  the  size,  but  the  texture  of  skulls  among  different  na- 
tions varies.  The  grain  of  the  New  Holland  skulls  is  extremely 
rough  and  coarse ;  that  of  the  Hindoos,  fine,  smooth,  and  compact, 
more  closely  resembling  ivory.  The  Swiss  skulls  are  open  and  soft 
in  the  grain,  while  the  Greek  are  closer  and  finer.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  there  may  possibly  be  a  corresponding  quality  of  brain 
in  the  individuals,  which  may  influence  the  mental,  and  conse- 
quently the  national  character.  This  difference  is  generally  attri- 
buted to  the  effects  of  temperament.  In  my  Anatomical  Museum 
I  have  the  models  of  twenty-five  different  heads  of  races,  each  hav- 


38  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

ing  a  different  peculiar  national  distinction  and  character.  A  strong; 
inference  in  favor  of  phrenology  may  be  drawn  from  this  fact. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  increase  in  extent,  thickness,  and 
weight,  from  the  commencement  trll  the  termination  of  their  de- 
velopment in  adult  age ;  but  after  this  time,  and  till  old  age,  they 
always  diminish  in  these  three  relations.  In  advanced  life  we  often 
find  them  reduced  to  a  mere  shell,  and  perhaps  perforated  in  some 
places.  They  thus  become  much  lighter  than  in  middle  life. 
Meckel  found  the  skull  of  a  female,  seventy  years  of  age,  weigh 
but  fourteen  ounces,  while  that  of  a  girl,  twenty  years  of  age, 
weighed  twenty-four  ounces.  In  the  early  periods  of  life,  the 
whole  form  of  the  head  is  much  rounder  than  at  an  advanced  age ; 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  small  development  of  the  face,  while  the 
skull  developes  in  every  direction. 

The  size  of  the  cavity  formed  by  the  bones  of  the  skull  is  always 
proportional  to  the  size  of  the  organs  it  lodges  and  protects.  The 
shape  and  size  of  the  cranium  depend  on  the  brain,  and  not  of  the 
brain  on  the  cranium.  The  soft  parts  model  and  adapt  to  them- 
selves the  hard,  and  not  the  hard  the  soft.  The  brain  is  formed 
before  the  case  which  contains  it,  and  it  is  not  till  after  several 
years  that  the  bones  of  the  cranium  become  perfectly  consolidated. 
In  a  child  of  ten  years  of  age,  afflicted  with  dropsy  in  the  head 
from  infancy,  and  which  was  exhibited  a  year  or  two  since  in  this 
city  as  a  great  curiosity,  although  the  head  measured  thirty-two 
inches  in  circumference  above  the  caps,  yet  nearly  the  whole  surface 
was  protected  by  a  bony  covering.* 

The  face  consists  of  fourteen  bones,  six  pair  and  two  single  ones. 
The  two  upper  jaw-bones  form  the  principal  part  of  the  face. 
They  meet  in  the  middle  line,  forming  the  arch  in  which  the  upper 
row  of  teeth  are  set,  and  extend  backwards,  forming  the  principal 
part  of  the  roof  of.  the  mouth.  A  process  runs  up  from  each, 
separating  the  cavity  of  the  nose  from  that  of  the  orbit.  In  order 
that  the  face  may  be  light,  the  body  of  the  maxillary  bone  is  not 
solid,  but  excavated,  the  cavity  communicating  with  the  nose,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  description  of  that  organ.  The  roof  of  the  mouth 
is  completed  by  the  two  palate  bones.  The  firm  part  of  the  nose, 
from  its,  roof  to  its  bridge,  is  formed  of  two  small  pieces,  meeting  in 
the  middle,  called  the  nasal  bones.  These  are  liable  to  be  broken 
or  knocked  in  by  a  blow,  an  injury  which  occasions  great  disfigure- 
ment. The  opening  of  the  nose  in  front  is  seen  in  the  skull  to  be 

*  Lee. 


THE    BONES.  39 

of  an  oval  figure,  bounded  by  the  two  nasal  and  the  two  upper  jaw- 
bones, called  upper  and  lower  maxillary  bones.  Bounding  the  lower 
and  outer  parts  of  the  orbits  are  the  two  malar  or  cheek-bones, 
making  the  prominences  at  the  sides  of  the  face,  which  are  so 
marked  in  the  races  of  Celtic  origin.  At  the  inner  sides  of  the 
orbits  are  two  little  bones  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  finger  nail, 
called  the  lachrymal  bones,  because  they  form  the  chief  part  of  the 
canal  through  which  the  tears  find  their  way  into  the  nose.  Form- 
ing the  partition  of  the  nose,  is  a  bone  resembling  the  ploughshare 
in  shape,  whence  its  Latin  name  of  vomer  ;  and  in  each  side  of  the 
nose  is  a  spongy  bone,  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  olfactory 
surface.  Finally,  the  lower  jaw  is  a  single  bone,  its  dental  arch 
equalling  in  size  that  formed  by  the  two  upper  jaw-bones,  and 
containing  as  many  teeth.  The  fore  part  of  the  bone  is  the  chin, 
extending  back  from  which,  and  gradually  separating  from  each 
other,  are  the  sides,  which  terminate  at  the  angles  ;  and  from  the 
angles  the  branches  rise  nearly  perpendicularly  upwards  to  be 
jointed  to  the  sockets  in  the  temporal  bones,  called  condyles. 

Though  composed  of  so  many  pieces,  the  whole  head  moves  as 
one  mass  on  the  top  of  the  spine  ;  and  the  only  motion  that  takes 
place  between  its  parts,  is  that  of  opening  and  closing  the  mouth. 
This  is  done  by  the  lower  jaw  dropping  and  being  again  lifted, 
while  the  upper  jaw  remains  unmoved.  This  holds  good  in  all 
beasts  and  birds ;  it  is  only  when  we  descend  to  the  reptiles  and 
fishes  that  we  find  both  jaws  moving,  as  in  the  crocodile  and  the 
shark. 

The  orbits  are  two  cavities  placed  in  the  face  for  containing  the 
eyes.  Each  orbit  is  of  a  conical  figure,  the  apex  being  behind, 
where  the  optic  nerve  enters  it,  and  the  base  being  in  front ;  and  it 
is  much  larger  tha*ri  is  necessary  for  the  size  of  the  eye  alone,  this 
delicate  organ  being  cushioned  on  a  quantity  of  soft  fat,  in  order 
that  it  may  move  with  the  greatest  ease  in  every  direction.  The 
inner  walls  of  the  orbits  are  parallel,  while  their  outer  walls  diverge 
widely  from  one  another,  to  give  the  eyes  the  advantage  of  as  wide 
a  range  as  possible. 

The  lower  extremities  consist  each  of  thirty  bones.  The  femur 
or  thigh  contains  a  single  bone,  the  largest  in  the  whole  body.  It 
has  a  long  shaft,  from  which  a  neck  goes  off  above,  at  an  oblique 
angle,  surmounted  by  a  smooth  globular  head,  covered  with  carti- 
lage, which  is  received  into  the  socket  that  has  been  described  as 
existing  on  the  pelvis.  Where  the  neck  of  the  bone  joins  the  shaft, 


40  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

are  two  prominences  which  serve  as  levers  for  the  attachment  of 
strong  muscles.  The  lower  ends  of  the  thigh-bones  are  large,  and 
rest  on  the  heads  of  the  tibia  and  fibula  shin-bones.  Their  lower 
ends  are  much  nearer  one  another  than  their  upper  ends,  thus 
bringing  the  points  of  support  underneath  the  weight  of  the  body. 
The  bones  of  the  leg  are  two.  The  tibia,  or  shin,  is  the  inner  and 
the  larger,  placed  perpendicularly  under  the  body  ;  it  has  a  broad 
end  above  to  articulate  with  the  thigh-bone,  and  a  smaller  one 
below  to  unite  with  the  foot  in  the  ankle-joint.  One  of  its  ridges 
is  felt  under  the  skin  the  whole  way  down,  and  is  the  part  usually 
known  as  the  shin.  The  outer  bone,  called  the  fibula,  passes  from 
the  upper  end  of  the  shin-bone  to  the  lower  ;  it  is  connected  with 
the  ankle-joint,  but  forms  no  part  of  the  knee-joint ;  it  has  no  con- 
nexion with  the  thigh-bone,  and  therefore  supports  no  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  body.  It  serves  to  increase  the  breadth  of  the 
leg,  without  adding  much  to  the  weight,  and  is  connected  in 
its  whole  length  to  the  shin-bone  by  a  strong  membrane  or  inter- 
osseous  ligament,  which  serves  to  give  attachment  to  muscles  as 
well  as  if  it  had  been  bone,  with  the  advantage  of  being  much 
lighter.  The  lower  ends  of  these  two  bones  make  the  projections 
which  are  called  the  inner  and  outer  ankles,  or  malleolus. 

Intermediate  to  the  thigh  and  leg  is  the  kneepan,  patella,  a 
bone  which  corresponds  to  the  elbow  in  the  upper  extremity.  It 
glides  on  the  smooth  anterior  part  of  the  thigh-bone,  is  attached  to 
the  shin-bone  by  a  strong  ligament,  and  has  the  powerful  extensor 
muscles  of  the  leg  inserted  in  it.  It  increases  the  power  of  these 
muscles,  by  throwing  their  attachment  forward,  and  therefore  further 
from  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  leg,  thus  conferring  on  them  the 
advantage  of  a  lever  power. 

The  foot  consists  of  twenty-six  bones.  Seven  of  these  form  the 
tarsus,  or  solid  part  of  the  foot,  to  which  no  English  word  corres- 
ponds ;  five  compose  the  instep,  or  metatarsus,  and  the  remaining 
fourteen  are  the  joints  of  the  toes.  One  of  the  bones  of  the  tarsus 
is  shaped  above  like  a  pulley,  and  is  received  between  the  projec- 
tions of  the  two  bones  of  the  leg  forming  the  two  ankles,  so  that 
by  its  motion  the  foot  is  bent  up  at  right  angles  to  the  leg,  or 
pointed  with  the  toes  downward.  The  bone  of  the  heel  projects 
nearly  an  inch  and  a  half  backwards,  giving  a  strong  lever  for  the 
insertion  of  the  powerful  muscles  which  form  the  calf  of  the  leg. 
The  next  bone  is  in  front  of  the  pulley-like  bone,  and  in  some 
persons  is  very  movable,  admitting  of  much  lateral  motion  across 


THE    BONES.  41 

the  middle  of  the  foot.  Three  wedge-shaped  and  one  cuboid  botfe 
in  front  of  these  complete  the  tarsus,  and  support  the  bones  of  the 
instep.  The  five  bones  of  the  metatarsus  are  each  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  long ;  they  are  attached  posteriorly  to  the  solid  part  of 
the  foot,  and  anteriorly  they  support  the  toes.  Their  anterior  ends 
rest  upon  the  ground  in  standing  ;  so  that  the  foot  presents  an  arch, 
the  end  of  the  heel  bone  behind,  and  the  ends  of  the  metatarsal 
bones  in  front,  being  the  abutments,  while  the  pulley-like  bone  is 
the  keystone  on  which  the  weight  of  the  body  rests.  This  arch  is 
not,  however,  firm  or  rigid,  but  yields  a  little  when  leant  on  ;  and  to 
prevent  its  yielding  too  much,  is  strengthened  below  with  strong 
ligaments,  passing  like  a  bowstring  from  behind  forwards.  The 
degree  of  hollowness  is  very  different  in  different  persons ;  and 
those  in  whom  it  is  most  developed  are  always  most  active,  and 
the  best  pedestrians.  The  foot  is  also  arched  from  side  to  side  ; 
and  in  the  hollow  thus  gained,  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  ten- 
dons going  to  the  toes,  lie  secure  from  injury  by  pressure.  The 
metatarsal  bone  of  the  great  toe  is  much  stronger  than  that  of  any 
of  the  rest.  To  this  toe  there  are  only  two  movable  pieces,  much 
larger  than  those  of  the  other  toes.  Each  of  the  smaller  toes  has 
three  pieces,  similar  to  the  pieces  of  the  fingers,  but  much  smaller, 
as  they  are  not  intended  for  laying  hold  with.  The  last  piece  is 
enlarged  at  the  point,  for  supporting  the  nail  on  its  upper,  and  the 
pulpy  extremity  of  the  toe  on  its  lower  surface. 

The  upper  extremities  have  a  strong  general  resemblance  to  the 
lower,  the  shoulder  corresponding  to  the  pelvis,  the  arm  to  the 
thigh,  the  forearm  to  the  leg,  and  the  hand  to  the  foot ;  but  the 
differences  between  them  are  also  very  striking.  The  lower  limbs 
are  formed  for  progression,  and  for  supporting  the  weight  of  the 
rest  of  the  body  ;  the  upper  are  formed  for  prehension,  much  less 
strong,  but  much  more  movable.  The  shoulder  is  not  fixed  im- 
movably to  the  trunk ;  the  shoulder-blade,  formed  by  the  clavicle 
and  scapula,  glides  on  the  back  of  the  ribs,  and  is  joined  firmly  to 
the  outer  end  of  the  collar-bone  ;  and  the  inner  end  of  this  is  con- 
nected to  a  socket  on  the  upper  corner  of  the  breast-bone,  which 
permits  great  freedom  of  motion,  but  forms  a  centre,  round  which 
the  shoulder  plays,  being  capable  of  being  raised  or  depressed, 
carried  forwards  or  backwards.  The  collar-bone  is  slender,  curved 
like  a  long  italic  f ;  and  as  all  shocks  produced  by  falls  on  any 
part  of  the  upper  extremity  are  transmitted  through  it,  it  is  one  of 
the  bones  the  most  frequently  broken.  The  scapula  or  shoulder- 


42  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

blade  is  triangular,  with  one  angle  directed  downward,  one  upward, 
and  one  outward,  and  it  covers  the  ribs  from  the  second  to  the 
seventh.  It  is  not,  however,  attached  to  the  ribs,  but  is  separated 
from  them  by  a  cushion  of  muscle  on  which  it  glides.  At  its  ex- 
ternal angle  there  is  a'  socket  for  the  bone  of  the  arm  so  shallow 
that  this  bone  is  not  laid  into  it,  but  merely  against  it,  which  is  one 
reason  of  the  frequency  of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder-joint. 
The  bone  of  the  arm  {humerus)  is  single,  attached  above  to  the 
shoulder-blade,  and  below  to  the  bones  of  the  forearm,  radius  and 
ulna,  and  forms  at  the  elbow  a  perfect  hinge-joint.  It  has  a  large 
round  head,  which  is  united  by  a  ball  and  socket-joint  with  the 
shoulder,  capable  of  motion  in  every  direction,  and  by  a  hinge- 
joint  with  the  forearm,  capable  of  flexion  and  extension.  It  has 
two  projections  externally  and  internally  just  above  the  elbow, 
which  give  the  breadth  to  this  part  of  the  limb,  and  to  which  the 
muscles  of  the  forearm  are  attached.  The  bones  of  the  forearm 
are  two,  the  radius  and  ulna,  the  former  being  on  the  outer  side, 
and  the  latter  on  the  inner.  The  ulna  is  connected  chiefly  with 
the  elbow-joint,  and  the  radius  chiefly  with  the  wrist ;  so  that  when 
a  fall  is  received  on  the  hand,  the  force  is  transmitted  through  the 
radius  much  more  than  through  the  ulna,  and  hence  the  radius  is 
broken  much  more  frequently  than  any  other  bone  in  the  body. 
The  ulna  is  articulated  very  firmly  to  the  humerus  or  arm  bone,  and 
moves  on  it  in  flexion  and  extension  ;  it  can  be  bent  up  very  close 
to  it,  and  can  be  extended  very  nearly  in  a  straight  line  with  it. 
The  radius  is  very  slightly  connected  with  the  arm  bone,  and  has 
a  round  head  received  into  a  cavity  in  the  outside  of  the  ulna, 
while  at  its  lower  end  it  has  a  cavity  in  its  inner  side,  which  rolls 
round  the  small  lower  end  of  the  ulna.  The  effect  of  this  arrange- 
ment is,  that  the  ulna  has  always  the  same  face  directed  forward, 
while  the  radius  can  roll  round  the  ulna,  so  that  its  edge,  or  even  its 
back,  can  be  turned  forward,  earring  the  hand  along  with  it.  This 
motion  is  commonly  said  to  take  place  in  the  wrist,  but  in  reality 
the  wrist  has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  It  is  called  pronation  and 
supination ;  the  hand  is  said  to  be  prone  when  its  back,  and  supine 
when  its  palm  is  turned  forward.  It  is  in  this  motion  that  the 
greatest  difference  is  observed  between  the  forearm  and  the  leg ; 
had  any  such  motion  been  permitted  in  the  leg,  it  would  have  pro- 
duced instability.  The  two  bones  are  connected  in  their  whole 
length  by  a  strong  membrane,  which  gives  origin  to  muscles,  while 
it  does  not  interfere  with  the  rolling  motion.  The  two  extremities 


THE   BONES.  43 

of  the  ulna  are  readily  felt,  both  the  upper  and  the  lower,  and 
afforded  a  very  ready  standard  of  measurement,  called  the  cubit, 
from  the  old  Latin  name  of  the  bone,  cubitus. 

The  hand  consists  of  twenty-seven  bones,  and  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  analogous  to  those  of  the  foot.  The  solid  part  enter- 
ing into  the  wrist  joint  is  properly  called  the  wrist ;  then  five  long 
bones  make  the  palm,  and  fourteen  movable  pieces  superadded, 
complete  the  fingers  and  thumb.  It  differs  from  the  foot,  in  its 
being  intended  not  for  support,  but  for  prehension,  and  all  its  parts 
are  adapted  to  this  end.  Eight  small  bones  are  pretty  firmly  united 
to  form  the  wrist,  presenting  a  ball  superiorly  to  enter  the  cavity  in 
the  lower  end  of  the  radius ;  fitted  inferiorly  to  support  the  bones 
of  the  palm ;  arched  behind  to  give  it  strength,  and  concave  in 
front  to  permit  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  sinews,  to  run  to  the 
fingers,  without  being  subjected  to  undue  pressure.  In  the  palm 
we  see  the  great  difference  between  the  hand  and  the  foot.  In  the 
latter  all  the  bones  of  the  instep  are  in  one  line,  immovable,  and 
serving  only  to  rest  on.  In  the  former,  four  of  the  bones  of  the 
palm  are  placed  side  by  side,  to  form  the  hollow  of  the  hand,  and 
support  the  fingers  ;  while  another,  supporting  the  thumb,  is  very 
movable,  being  capable  of  being  brought  opposite  the  others,  so  as 
to  grasp  firmly  anything  between  them  and  it.  The  pieces  of  the 
fingers  are  considerably  larger  than  those  of  the  toes,  but  are 
formed  on  a  similar  model.  The  fingers  have  each  three  pieces, 
the  thumb  only  two.  The  last  piece  of  each  is  expanded  at  the 
end,  to  support  the  nail  on  the  back,  and  on  the  front  the  delicate 
pulp  where  the  nerves  ramify,  in  which  the  nicest  sense  of  touch 
exists. 

The  size  of  the  skeleton  varies  very  much,  varying  from  thirty- 
five  inches  to  upwards  of  eight  feet.  The  gigantic  skeleton  pre- 
served in  the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London 
measures  eight  feet  two  inches.  What  is  called  the  middle  size  in 
man,  is  about  five  feet  four,  in  woman  about  five  feet. 

The  formation  and  growth  of  bones  is  an  exceedingly  interesting 
subject,  but  one  that  can  well  be  studied  in  the  museum,  where 
there  are  preserved  abundant  specimens  of  young  children  at  every 
different  period  of  foetal  life.  In  the  fcetus  cartilage  serves  as  a 
substitute  for  bone  at  first :  and  about  the  sixth  week  after  concep- 
tion, earthy  matter  begins  to  be  deposited  in  it.  In  the  flat  bones, 
it  is  first  deposited  in  the  centre,  and  extends  in  lines  radiating  to 
the  circumference,  forming  a  delicate  net- work  like  a  bit  of  lace, 


44  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

and  layer  is  superadded  upon  layer,  until  the  necessary  degree  of 
thickness  is  obtained.  In  the  round  bones,  ossification  proceeds 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  In  the  long  bones,  ossifica- 
tion commences  at  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  extends  outward 
gradually  till  near  the  ends,  where  it  stops.  At  a  period  soon  after 
birth,  the  ends  of  the  long  bones  begin  to  ossify  separately,  at  their 
centre,  in  the  same  way  that  the  short  bones  do,  and  they  continue 
separated  from  the  shafts  of  the  bones  by  a  layer  of  cartilage,  till 
the  15th,  16th,  or  even  18th  year.  Hence  children  should  on  no 
account  be  rudely  pulled  about,  or  twisted  about  the  limbs,  as  the 
ends  of  the  bones  are  apt  to  be  twisted  off,  producing  incurable 
lameness. 

The  most  common  affection  for  which  we  have  to  treat  bones,  is 
their  fracture.  Most  of  the  bones  when  broken  unite  in  three 
weeks,  if  properly  kept  at  rest,  but  the  thigh-bone  is  never  fit  for 
walking  upon  in  less  than  six. 

The  following  list  exhibits  the  number  of  bones  in  the  several 
regions  of  the  body. 

The  Spine  contains    .        .        .        .24 

Pelvis,    .....  5 

Breast-bone,         ....  1 

Ribs,       .    '     .'^     .       .-/. :.;r  24 

Arms,          ...        .  -      .  64 

Legs,       ...       V       .  60 

Head,          .        .        .        .      V  22 

Total,         .£'- --..  '      .      200* 

RECAPITULATION. 
BONES    OF   THE    HEAD. 

Frontal  Bone.  Situated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  skull,  forming 
the  forehead  and  upper  part  of  the  orbits. 

Parietal  Bones.  Situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  superior  part 
of  the  cranium. 

Occipital  Bone.     Situated  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranium. 

Sphenoid  Bone.  Situated  in  the  middle  of  the  basis  of  the 
cranium,  extending  underneath  from  one  temple  across"  to  the 
other. 

Temporal  Bones.  Situated  at  the  sides  and  inferior  part  of  the 
cranium. 

*  Douglas. 


THE    BONES.  45 

Ethmoid  Bone.  Situated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  basis  of  the 
cranium,  above  the  root  of  the  nose  and  between  the  orbits. 

BONES    OF    THE    FACE 

The  bones  of  the  face  are  fourteen  in  number,  and  are  divided 
into  those  of  the  upper  and  under  jaw.  The  upper  jaw  is  formed 
of  thirteen  bones,  viz.  two  superior  maxillary,  two  nasal,  two  pala- 
tine, two  jugular  or  malar,  two  inferior  spongy,  two  lachrymal,  and 
the  vomer,  which  are  united  to  the  cranium,  and  with  one  another, 
by  harmony.  The  under  jaw  consists  of  one  bone. 

Superior  Maxillary  Bones.  Situated  in  the  anterior  and  middle 
part  of  the  face. 

Jugular  or  Malar  Bones.     Situated  at  the  sides  of  the  face. 

Ossa  Nasi,  or  Bones  of  the  Nose.  Situated  in  the  superior  and 
middle  part  of  the  nose. 

Lachrymal  Bones.     Situated  in  the  internal  angle  of  the  orbit. 

Inferior  Spongy  Bones.  Situated  in  the  side  and  lower  part  of 
the  nostrils. 

Palatine  Bones.  Situated  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  nose,  from 
which  they  ascend  laterally  to  the  orbits. 

Vomer.  Situated  in  the  middle  of  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils, 
which  it  divides  into  two  parts. 

Lower  Jaw  Bone.  Situated  in  the  inferior  and  anterior  part  of 
the  face. 

Os  Hyoides.  Situated  in  the  fauces,  between  the  basis  of  the 
tongue  and  iarnyx. 

BONES    OF   THE    TRUNK. 

The  trunk  of  the  skeleton  is  divided  into  the  spine,  chest,  loins, 
and  pelvis. 

Spine.  A  long  column,  or  pillar,  which  extends  in  the  posterior 
part  of  the  trunk  from  the  occipital  bone  to  the  os  sacrum.  Com- 
posed of  24  bones  called  vertebrae,  viz.  7  of  the  neck,  12  of  the 
back,  and  5  of  the  loins. 

BONES  OF  THE  CHEST,  OR  THORAX. 

The  thorax  is  composed  of  twelve  dorsal  vertebrae,  twenty- four 
ribs,  and  the  sternum. 

Sternum.  Situated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  thorax,  between 
the  true  ribs. 


46  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

BONES    OF   THE    PELVIS. 

Ossa  Innominata.  Situated  at  the  sides  of  the  pelvis.  Figure, 
irregular.  Each  bone  is  divided  into  three  parts,  viz.  ilium  the 
uppermost,  ischium  the  lowest,  and  pubis  the  anterior.  Eminences 
— The  crista  of  the  ilium,  from  which  the  oblique  and  transverse 
muscles  of  the  abdomen  arise — at  its  posterior  part  are  two  spinous 
processes,  which  give  adhesion  to  ligaments — at  its  anterior  part 
are  also  two  spinous  processes,  the  superior  gives  adhesion  to  the 
sartorius,  tensor  vaginae  femoris,  and  the  ligament  of  the  thigh  ; 
the  inferior  anterior  spinous  process,  about  an  inch  from  the  former, 
has  arising  from  it  the  rectus  femoris.  The  external  surface  of  the 
iliac  portion  is  covered  by  the  glutsei  muscles  ;  the  internal  by  the 
internal  iliac.  Upon  the  internal  surface  there  is  a  line  even  with 
the  pubis  ;  this  is  called  linea  innominata,  or  rim  of  the  pelvis ;  it 
divides  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  from  the  pelvis.  Upon  the 
ischiatic  portion  or  ischium  are  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  upon 
which  we  sit;  the  spinous  process  of  the  ischium,  which  projects 
backwards,  and  gives  adhesion  to  the  uppermost  sacro-sciatic  liga- 
ment ;  the  ramus  ischii,  which  joins  the  pubis.  Upon  the  pubic 
portion,  or  pubis,  are  the  body,  near  the  socket,  the  angles  and 
arches  of  the  pubis.  Cavities — A  notch  between  the  anterior  spines 
of  the  ilium  ;  an  anterior  and  posterior  ischiatic  notch  ;  the  aceta- 
bulum,  which  receives  the  head  ef  the  os  femoris,  and  the  foramen 
thyroideum,  or  ovale.  Each  os  innominatum  is  connected  with  its 
fellow  anteriorly  by  symphysis,  with  the  sacrum  posteriorly  by 
strong  cartilages  and  ligaments,  and  with  the  head  of  the  thigh- 
bone by  enarthrosis.  Use — To  form  the  pelvis ;  to  retain  the  gravid 
uterus  in  its  situation,  and  to  constitute  the  acetabulum  for  the 
thighs. 

Os  Sacrum.     Situated  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  pelvis. 

Os  Coccygis.     Situated  at  the  apex  of  the  sacrum. 

BONES    OF    THE    SUPERIOR    EXTREMITIES. 

The  bones  of  the  upper  extremities  are,  on  each  side,  the  cla- 
vicle, scapula,  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  bones  of  the  carpus,  metacar- 
pus, and  fingers. 

Clavicle.  Situated  obliquely  in  fhe  upper  and  lateral  parts  of 
the  thorax 

Scapula.     Situated  in  the  upper  and  lateral  parts  of  the  back. 

Os  Humeri.     Situated  between  the  scapula  and  fore-arm. 

Cubit,  or  Ulna.  Situated  in  the  inside  of  the  fore-arm,  towards 
the  little  finger. 


THE    BONES.  47 

Radius.  Situated  in  the  external  side  of  the  fore-arm,  towards 
the  thumb. 

Carpus  or  Wrist.  Composed  of  eight  bones,  which  lie  close  to 
each  other  in  a  double  row.  Situated  between  the  fore-arm  and 
metacarpus.  Divided  into  two  rows,  superior  and  inferior.  In  the 
superior  row  are  (from  the  thumb  to  the  little  finger)  os  scaphoides, 
or  naviculare ;  os  lunare ;  os  cuneiforme  ;  and  os  orbiculare,  or 
sub-rotundum.  In  the  lower,  os  trapezium ;  os  trapezoides ;  os 
magnum,  and  os  unciforme. 

Metacarpus.  Situated  between  the  carpus  and  fingers.  Com- 
posed of  five  longitudinal  bones ;  one  of  the  thumb,  and  four 
metacarpal  bones  of  the  fingers.  Use — To  form  the  middle  part  of 
the  hand. 

Fingers.  Situated  at  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  metacarpus. 
Composed  of  a  thumb  and  four  fingers.  The  thumb  has  two  bones, 
and  each  finger  three,  which  are  called  phalanges.  Use — To  form 
the  fingers,  which  are  the  instruments  of  touch,  defence,  and  labor. 

BONES    OF   THE    INFERIOR    EXTREMITIES. 

The  bones  of  the  inferior  extremity  are,  the  femur,  patella,  tibia, 
fibula,  the  bones  of  the  tarsus,  metatarsus,  and  toes. 

Femur.     Situated  between  the  pelvis  and  tibia. 

Tibia.  Situated  in  the  inside  of  the  leg,  between  the  femur  and 
tarsus. 

Fibula.  Situated  in  the  outer  part  of  the  leg,  by  the  side  of  the 
tibia. 

Patella,  or  Knee-pan.  Situated  in  the  sinus  between  the  con- 
diles  of  the  femur,  and  above  the  tibia. 

Tarsus.  Situated  between  the  leg  and  metatarsus.  Composed 
of  seven  bones,  placed  in  a  double  row. 

Metatarsus.  Situated  between  the  tarsus  and  toes.  Composed 
of  five  longitudinal  bones. 

Toes.  The  great  toe  is  composed  of  two  small  bones  ;  each  of 
the  other  toes,  of  three  small  bones,  called  phalanges. 

PERIOSTEUM. 

Definition.  A  membrane  which  invests  the  external  and  internal 
surface  of  all  the  bones  except  the  crowns  of  the  teeth.  Names. — 
Pericranium  on  the  cranium ;  periorbita  on  the  orbits ;  perichon- 
drium,  when  it  covers  cartilages  ;  and  peridesmium,  when  it  covers 
ligaments.  Substance  fibrous,  furnished  with  arteries^  veins,  nerves, 
and  absorbent  vessels.  Use — To  distribute  the  vessels  on  the  exte** 
nal  and  internal  surface  of  bones. 


48 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY 


Bones  are  subject  to  disease,  as  the  rickets,  tumors,  necrosis, 
curvatures,  etc.  The  following  figures,  I  and  2,  illustrate  a  de- 
formity of  the  spine  by  lumbar  abscess,  A. 


» 


THE    BONES.  49 

Children  at  school,  in  consequence  of  sitting  long  in  a  bent 
position,  are  very  liable  to  a  curvature  or  bending  of  the  spine. 
The  remedy  consists  in  avoiding  the  causes — sitting  in  an  erect  posi- 
tion, exercising  much  in  the  open  air,  living  on  a  light  and  princi- 
pally vegetable  diet,  as  bread  and  milk  ;  bathing  daily  with  cold 
water,  keeping  the  bowels  regular,  and  wearing  a  stimulating 
plaster  on  the  spine,  and  avoid  the  use  of  mercury. 

The  following  figure  represents  a  contrivance  to  lessen  the  pressure  or  weight  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  on  the  diseased  spine. 


f 


Says  Dr.  Lee,  in  his  treatise  on  physiology,  "  How  preposterous, 
unnatural,  and  ruinous  is  the  practice  of  confining  delicate  females 
for  hours  together  every  day  to  sedentary  employment,  the  sure 
consequence  of  which  will  be,  weakness  of  the  body  generally, 
and  of  the  back  in  particular,  especially  if  the  seat  be  a  bench 
which  has  no  back,  or  even  a  narrow  chair  with  a  perpendicular 
back. 

u  The  effect  of  such  a  practice  is,  that  in  consequence  of  the 
fatigue  induced  by  such  a  posture,  the  spine  gives  way  in  some 
part  and  bends,  and  in  a  little  time  the  curvature  becomes  per- 
manent. And  often  when  a  bend  has  taken  place  in  one  direction, 
there  immediately  follows  an  opposite  bend  above  or  below,  to 
keep  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  always  directly  over  the 
base ;  the  curve  accordingly  thus  becomes  double,  like  an  italic/, 
and  the  distortion  is  rendered  complete. 

"  The  means  employed  to  remedy  this  affection  almost  invariably 
make  it  worse.  In  the  first  place,  strong,  stiff  stays  are  put  on,  to 
support  the  back,  as  it  is  said  ;  and  so  they  do,  perhaps,  while  they 
are  on ;  but  as  they  supersede  the  action  of  the  muscles,  placed 
there  by  nature  as  the  supports,  they  cause  these  to  lose  their 
strength  ;  and  when  the  stays  are  withdrawn,  the  muscles  are  found 
too  weak  to  support  the  body.  Other  mechanical  expedients  may 
now  be  employed,  the  back  may  be  forcibly  stretched  by  pullev? 
4 


50 


ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 


or  the  patient  may  be  kept  all  day  and  night  lying  on  an  inclined 
plane.  The  victim  of  fashion  may  next,  perhaps,  be  placed  under 
the  charge  of  a  regular  spine  doctor,  who,  by  means  of  pulleys, 
screws,  paddings,  stays,  and  close  confinement,  destroys  what  little 
chance  there  still  remains  of  a  cure.  A  decline  now  sets  in,  and 
the  sufferer  sinks  into  an  early  grave." 

The  following  figure  represents  a  curvature  of  the 'spine. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    JOINTS. 

THE  bones  composing  the  skeleton  are  articulated  to  one  another 
in  three  different  ways.  1st.  They  are  found  dovetailed  into  one 
another,  with  the  intervention  of  a  very  thin  layer  of  cartilage,  and 
are  quite  immovable.  2dly.  They  are  connected  by  means  of  one 
or  more  layers  of  cartilage  between  them,  and  ligaments  on  their 
outsides,  tying  them  together,  and  admitting  of  more  or  less 
motion.  3dly.  They  are  united  by  means  of  cartilages,  ligaments, 
and  synovial  membranes,  forming  the  most  perfect  joints,  such  as 
are  found  in  the  extremities. 


THE    JOINTS.  51 

The  unions  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  are  called  sutures,  from 
the  Latin  word  signifying  to  sew,  because  they  seem  as  if  stitched 
together,  the  fibres  of  the  one  .bone  forming  prolongations  which 
pass  into  the  notches,  or  spaces  left  by  the  similar  prolongations  of 
the  other,  as  is  seen  in  the  figure  of  the  skull  already  given.  Be- 
tween these  a  thin  layer  of  cartilage  runs.  These  sutures  run  in 
determinate  lines  over  the  head,  as  seen  in  the  drawing  of  the 
cranium,  but  in  a  work  of  this  character  it  would  be  out  of  place 
to  give  a  more  detailed  description  of  them. 

The  bones  of  the  spine  are  united  by  thick  layers  of  a  peculiar 
cartilage  mixed  with  ligaments,  placed  between  them,  admitting  of 
but  little  motion  between  any  pair  of  bones,  but  allowing  consider- 
able curvatures  to  take  place  in  the  whole  length  of  the  spine. 
Strong  ligaments  also  pass  down  the  spine  in  front  and  behind, 
binding  its  different  pieces  together.  The  different  parts  of  the 
pelvis  are  united  by  means  of  cartilage,  each  bone  having  its  arti- 
culating surface  covered  with  cartilage,  and  these  laid  together, 
with  or  without  the  intervention  of  a  third  layer,  and  are  bound 
firmly  by  ligaments  passing  over  them.  Such  are  the  joints  between 
the  two  haunch-bones,  and  between  them  and  the  ischium. 

The  joints  of  the  extremities  are  of  a  more  complicated  nature. 
The  ends  of  the  bones  entering  into  the  joints  are  covered  with  car- 
tilage, then  the  bones  are  tied  together  by  ligaments,  and  in  addition 
a  membrane  called  synovial  is  spread  over  the  ends  of  the  bones 
and  lines  the  ligaments,  forming  a  shut  bag,  whose  inner  surfaces 
are  everywhere  in  contact,  and  to  obviate  friction  are  moistened 
with  a  bland  mucilaginous  fluid  called  synovia.  This  fluid,  which 
serves  the  purpose  of  oil  to  the  joints,  does  not  in  reality  contain 
any,  yet  it  has  very  much  the  feeling  of  oil  when  rubbed  be- 
tween the  fingers.  When  it  increases  too  much  in  quantity,  it  pro- 
duces dropsy  of  the  joints. 


A  Finger-joint  is  represented.  B.  B.  are  the  two  bones.  L.  L.  the  two  ligaments ; 
the  cartilages  are  seen  covering  the  ends  of  the  bones,  and  inside  of  this  the  synovial 
rAembrane  is  seen  lining  them  and  the  ligaments.  A  space  is  represented  between  the 
bones  merely  for  the  sake  of  making  it  plainer ;  but  in  reality  the  surfaces  are  in  con- 
tact. 


52  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  with  the  temporal  bone  is 
almost  completely  a  hinge-joint.  The  upper  end,  or  condyle  of  the 
jaw-bone,  is  covered  with  cartilage,  and  so  is  the  socket ;  and  the 
two  bones  are  tied  together  by  side  ligaments.  Besides,  there  is  a 
movable  cartilage  in  the  joint,  which  accompanies  the  condyle  of 
the  jaw  in  its  motion.  Notwithstanding  all  these  appliances,  the 
jaw  is  sometimes  dislocated,  slipping  forward  off  the  eminence 
upon  which  it  gets  when  the  mouth  is  opened.  When  this  acci- 
dent takes  place,  which  generally  happens  from  a  violent  yawn, 
the  patient  is  left  with  his  mouth  wide  open,  and  has  not  the  power 
of  closing  it,  presenting  a  very  ludicrous  figure,  though  his  situa- 
tion is  to  himself  sufficiently  uncomfortable.  After  this  accident 
has  happened,  it  is  exceedingly  liable  to  be  reproduced,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  torn  ligaments  never  properly  uniting. 

The  shoulder-joint  is  of  all  others  the  most  frequently  dislocated. 
This  results  partly  from  its  form,  and  partly  from  its  being  more 
exposed  to  violence,  since  every  fall,  whether  upon  the  shoulder, 
elbow,  or  hand,  has  a  tendency  to  displace  it.  The  cavity  on  the 
shoulder-blade  is  so  small  and  shallow,  that  the  round  head  of  the 
arm-bone  is  not  laid  in  it  but  on  it ;  its  capsular  ligament  is  strong 
but  loose,  so  that  the  bone  depends  for  being  retained  in  its  place 
upon  the  muscles  which  surround  it ;  and  if  these^afe  overcome,  or 
taken  by  surprise,  particularly  when  the  arm  is  raised  above  the 
head,  the  head  of  the  bone  is  dislocated  down  into  the  armpit.  It 
is  in  general  replaced  without  much  difficulty,  but  is  exceedingly 
liable  to  be  thrown  out  again.  I  recollect  one  man,  says  Douglas, 
who  fell  into  fits  occasionally,  wjiose  shoulder-joint  I  saw  dislocated 
and  assisted  to  reduce  three  times,  on  three  successive  days. 

The  elbow-joint  is  more  complex  than  the  shoulder-joint.  It  is 
double  in  its  motions,  admitting  of  the  flexion  and  extension  of  the 
forearm  on  the  arm,  and  the  rolling  of  the  head  of  the  radius.  For 
the  first  motion  it  has  two  strong  lateral  ligaments,  which  render  it 
a  hinge-joint,  and  the  neck  of  the  radius  is  confined  to  the  srde  of 
the  ulna  by  a  collar  in  which  it  rolls.  A  synovial  membrane  covers 
the  ends  of  the  bones,  and  lines  the  different  ligaments.  It  may 
be  dislocated  in  many  directions.  Both  bones  of  the  forearm  are 
most  commonly  thrown  backward  ;  then  the  arm  is  nearly  straight, 
and  cannot  be  bent.  Sometimes  the  forearm  is  thrown  sideways, 
either  outward  or  inward,  and  sometimes  the  radius  is  dislocated 
alone,  either  backwards  or  forwards.  From  its  complexity,  it  is 
also  subject  to  disease. 


THE    JOINTS.  53 

The  wrist-joint  is  a  hinge-joint,  moving  backwards  and  forwards, 
and  also  allowing  the  hand  to  be  moved  a  little  edgewise  out- 
wards or  inwards.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius  forms  a  socket  in 
which  the  two  uppermost  bones  of  the  wrist  move,  united  so  as  to 
form  an  oblong  ball.  Two  lateral  ligaments  confine  the  hand  to 
the  lower  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  and  the  whole  joint  is  lined 
by  a  synovial  membrane.  This  joint  is  never  dislocated,  but  it  is 
liable  to  sprains,  and  to  disease,  producing  occasionally  the  loss  of 
the  hand. 

The  bones  in  the  hand  are  not  subject  to  dislocations,  except  at 
the  joint  between  the  first  and  second  pieces  of  the  thumb — a  seem- 
ingly trifling  affair,  but  one  which  is  extremely  difficult  to  set  to 
rights ;  so  much  so,  that  many  of  those  who  are  the  subjects  of  the 
accident  continue  to  go  with  the  point  of  the  thumb  bent  back,  all 
the  rest  of  their  days. 

The  only  dislocation  that  takes  place  in  the  spine  is  that  between 
the  first  and  second  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  in  consequence  of  de- 
struction of  a  ligament  which  keeps  them  in  their  places.  When 
this  happens,  the  weight  of  the  head  makes  it  fall  forward,  carrying 
the  first  vertebra  with  it,  and  the  spinal  marrow  is  so  nipt  between 
it  and  the  second,  that  the  sufferer  dies  as  surely  and  as  instantane- 
ously as  if  his  neck  were  severed  by  the  axe  of  the  executioner. 

The  hip-joint  consists  of  a  deep  socket,  formed  by  the  ilium 
above,  ischium  lower,  and  pubes  before,  into  which  the  round  head 
of  the  femur  or  thigh-bone  is  set.  The  opposed  surfaces  are 
covered  with  cartilage,  and  are  tied  together  by  an  internal  liga- 
ment. A  capsular  ligament  of  great  strength,  attached  round  the 
edge  of  the  socket  and  to  the  neck  of  the  bone,  fixes  it  in  its  place. 
The  whole  is  lined  by  a  synovial  membrane.  The  joint  is,  not- 
withstanding its  strength,  subject  to  dislocations,  principally  on 
account  of  the  long  lever  which  the  thigh-bone  affords  to  any  force 
acting  upon  it,  so  as  to  tear  the  head  from  its  socket. 

The  knee  is  the  most  complicated  joint  in  the  whole  body.  The 
ends  of  the  femur  or  thigh-bone  and  tibia  are  each  covered  with 
cartilage,  and  in  contact,  but  neither  of  them  is  hollowed ;  so  that 
the  joint  does  not  depend  for  its  strength  on  its  form,  but  on  the 
number  and  strength  of  its  ligaments.  Two  of  these  are  placed 
externally  and  internally,  as  in  all  hinge-joints,  and  seven  others 
are  arranged  in  different  positions  within  and  without  it.  The 
kneepan  (patella)  is  placed  in  front  of  it,  and  the  whole  is  lined 
with  a  synovial  membrane,  which  is  the  largest  in  the  body  :  hence 


54  ANATOMY   AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  fever  and  constitutional  disturbance  that  arise  when  this  joint 
becomes  inflamed.  It  lies  very  superficial,  being  covered  only  by 
the  skin  in  the  greatest  part  of  its  extent,  and  hence  it  is  very 
easily  wounded  by  a  cut  or  prick  from  any  sharp  instrument.  It  is 
never  dislocated,  except  by  such  a  force  as  destroys  it  altogether. 

The  ankle  is  a  hinge-joint,  having  one  lateral  ligament  on  its 
inner,  and  three  on  its  outer  side.  The  upper  surface  of  the  astra- 
galus^ as  has  been  already  said,  is  like  the  half  of  a  broad  pulley ; 
it  plays  against  the  lower  hollow  end  of  the  tibia,  and  is  received 
between  the  two  ankles,  formed  by  it  and  the  fibula.  This  part  of 
the  astragalus  is  narrower  behind  than  in  front,  so  that  when  the  foot 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  leg,  as  when  we  stand  on  it,  the  broad  part 
is  between  the  ankles,  and  it  is  firmly  fixed  ;  but  when  the  foot  is 
extended,  pointed  downwards,  the  narrow  part  is  brought  between 
them,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  toes  being  directed  to  either  side.  The 
ankle  joint  may  be  dislocated  forwards  or  to  either  side.  This 
never  happens  without  one  <*f  the  ankles  being  broken  off;  the 
ligaments  being  so  strong  that  the  bone  will  break  rather  than  they 
should  give  way.  The  dislocation  of  the  ankle  can  scarcely  take 
place  without  a  wound  co-existing.  I  may  here  mention  what  is 
meant  by  a  compound,  and  wrhat  by  a  simple  dislocation.  A  simple 
dislocation  is  one  where  the  bones  are  displaced,  but  the  skin  is 
unbroken ;  a  compound  one  is  not  more  serious,  in  so  far  as  the 
bones  are  concerned,  but  is  accompanied  with  a  wound  leading  into 
the  joint.  In  the  same  way,  a  simple  fracture  is  where  a  bone  is 
broken,  without  a  wound  ;  a  compound  one  is  where  there  is  a 
wound  communicating  with  the  broken  surfaces.  The  joints  across 
the  foot  are  numerous.  There  is  one  joint  across  the  middle  of  the 
tarsus  or  solid  part  of  the  foot,  which  in  some  persons  admits  of 
much  lateral  motion,  and  in  such  feet,  is  liable  to  be  sprained. 
Another  joint  runs  across  between  the  bones  of  the  tarsus  and  those 
of  the  instep.  The  joints  of  the  toes  require  nothing  particular  to 
be  said  of  them,  only  that  in  persons  who  live  very  freely  and 
drink  much  wine,  they  are  apt  to  become  affected  with  gout ;  and 
in  elderly  people  the  joint  at  the  ball  of  the  great  toe  is  liable  to 
be  drawn  so  as  to  make  a  projection  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
foot,  become  exposed  to  pressure  from  the  shoe,  and  produce 
corns. 

The  most  common  disease  of  joints  is  their  inflammation.  Some- 
times this  is  acute,  as  after  injuries  or  from  rheumatism.  The 
synovial  bag  becomes  inflamed,  and  forms  an  inordinate  quantity  of 


FIG.  5.   MUSCLES  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  NECK, 


FIG.  6.  MUSCLES  OF  THE  STOMACH. 

2 


Fibres  are  seen  running  in  different  directions  to  produce  the  "  churning  motion." 

1  .heJf,soPhagus  terminating  in  the  stomach.    2.  The  cardiac  orifice.    3.  The  pylo- 
£U™  commencement  of  the  duodenum.    5.  The  large  curvature  of  the  stomach, 

6.  The  small  curvature.    7.  The  large  extremity.    8.  The  small  extremity.    9.  The  lon- 
gitudinal muscular  fibres.     10.  The  circular  muscular  fibres. 


THE    MUSCLES.  55 

fluid,  which  distends  the  joint  enormously.  It  is  accompanied  with 
intense  redness  and  acute  pain,  and  requires  fomentation  and  other 
treatment  to  reduce  it.  In  scrofulous  persons,  the  inflammation 
does  not  assume  this  acute  form,  but  is  low  and  long-continued ; 
the  synovial  membrane  forms  purulent  matter,  instead  of  merely  an 
increased  quantity  of  its  natural  secretion ;  the  matter  gradually 
works  its  way  to  the  surface,  making  one  or  two  ulcerated  open- 
ings, leading  directly  into  the  joint,  and  by  and  by  the  cartilages 
are  destroyed,  and  if  a  probe  be  introduced,  the  ends  of  the  bones 
are  felt  to  be  bare  and  rough.  In  this  state  the  patient's  general 
health  suffers  much ;  he  becomes  affected  with  shivering,  profuse 
night  sweats,  and  often  purging,  &c. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE   MUSCLES. 

Knowest  thou  the  nature  of  the  human  frame, 

That  world  of  wonders,  more  than  we  can  name  ? 

Say,  has  thy  busy,  curious  eye  survey 'd 

The  proofs  of  boundless  wisdom  there  display'd, 

How  ranged  each  fibre  with  amazing  skill 

That  every  muscle  may  attend  thy  will ; 

How  every  tendon  acts  upon  its  bone, 

And  how  the  nerves  receive  their  nicer  tone  ; 

Convey  the  keen  vibration  of  the  sense  ; 

And  give  the  wakeful  mind  intelligence, 

How  some  strong  guard  each  vital  part  sustains, 

How  flows  the  purpk  liquid  through  the  veins ! 

IN  order  that  the  bones  when  connected  by  their  joints  may  be 
brought  into  motion,  there  must  exist  to  each  a  moving  power. 
The  moving  power  resides  in  the  muscles.  Muscles  are  the  masses 
of  red  flesh  which  are  seen  in  cutting  a  piece  of  meat,  arranged  in 
determinate  forms,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  cellular 
membrane  and  fat.  When  examined  chemically,  they  are  found  to 
consist  almost  wholly  of  a  principle  derived  from  the  blood,  which  is 
called  fibrin.  They  are  of  a  red  color,  not  from  any  inherent  quality 
of  the  fibrin,  for  they  can  be  washed  almost  white,  but  from  the 
large  quantity  of  blood  which  is  constantly  circulating  through  them. 
Indeed,  a  muscle  requires  blood  to  go  to'  it  to  be  able  to  act,  and 


56 


ANATOMY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


when  healthy  blood  is  not  sent  to  it,  it  loses  its  contractile  power. 
Each  muscle  is  composed  of  small  bundles  of  fibres,  connected  to- 
gether by  fine  cellular  membrane,  running  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  enveloped  in  a  common  sheath.  Every  muscle  has  at  least 
two  attachments ;  the  one  which  is  most  fixed  is  called  its  origin, 
the  one  which  is  most  ordinarily  moved,  is  its  insertion.  The 
action  of  a  muscle  consists  in  shortening  itself  so  as  to  bring  its 
insertion  nearer  to  its  origin.  In  so  doing,  its  fibres  assume  a  zig- 
zag form,  and  the  whole  muscle  becomes  thicker,  as  may  be  easily 
proved  by  grasping  the  arm  when  straight  with  the  other  hand,  and 
then  bending  it,  when  the  muscles  on  the  inside  of  the  arm  will  be 
felt  swelling  as  they  shorten  themselves.  Or,  let  the  fingers  be  laid 
on  the  side  of  the  cheek,  and  the  jaws  firmly  closed,  and  then  the 
strong  muscles  whose  action  it  is  to  close  the  jaws,  will  be  felt  be- 
coming hard  under  the  finger.  A  muscle  may  have  its  origin  con- 
verted into  its  insertion  by  having  the  latter  fixed.  For  instance, 
the  strong  muscles  which  bring  down  the  arms  in  striking,  may  be 
reversed  in  their  action ;  if  you  catch  a  beam  above  your  head, 
their  insertion  into  the  arms  will  now  be  fixed,  and  they  will  swing 
up  the  body,  so  as  to  enable  you  to  grasp  the  beam  with  the  feet. 

Most  muscles  have  a  tendon  or  sinew  at  one  end,  sometimes  at 
both,  by  which  they  are  fixed  to  their  points  of  attachment  in  the 
movable  parts  of  the  skeleton.  The  forms  of  the  muscles  are  very 
various,  but  are  principally  the  following: — 1.  A  single-bellied 
muscle,  small  at  each  end,  thick  and  round  in  the  middle ;  the 
middle  swelled  part  is  called  its  belly.  A  tendon  is  represented  at 
one  end.  Of  this  kind  are  most  of  the  muscles  of  the  limbs.  (Fig. 


1.)   2.  A  double-bellied  muscle,  when  there  are  two  bellies  meeting 
and  becoming  inserted  by  one  tendon.  (Fig.  2.)   3.  A  strap-shaped 


Fig.  2. 


muscle  when  the  fibres  run  parallel  to  one  another,  forming  a  thin 
strap,  with  or  without  a  tendon.   (Fig.  3.)  4.  A  fan-shaped  muscle 


Fig.  3. 


broad  and  thin  at  its  origin,  narrow  and  thick  at  its  tendinous  in- 


THE    MUSCLES. 


57 


Fig.  4. 


sertion.  (Fig.  4.)  5.  A  single  penniform  muscle,  like  a  quill  with  the 
feathers  stripped  off  one  side,  the  quill  part  representing  the  tendon, 


Fig.  5. 


and  the  feathery  part  the  oblique  short  muscular  fibres.  (Fig.  5) 
6.  A  double  penniform  muscle,  like  the  quill  with  both  its  rows  of 
feathers. 


Fig.  6. 


The  number  of  muscles  in  the  body  is  upwards  of  four  hundred, 
varying  slightly  in  different  individuals.     They  are  arranged  in  four 


Fig.  7. 


58  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

layers,  of  which  the  layer  next  the  skin  gives  the  form  to  the  limbs, 
ttye  eminences  and  depressions  which  it  delights  the  painter  to 
delineate.  It  would  be  an  unprofitable  task  in  a  work  like  this  to 
minutely  describe  the  muscles,  but  I  will  shortly  go  over  the  prin- 
cipal of  those  which  are  seen  in  the  accompanying  plate  (Fig.  7) 
of  the  superficial  layer  of  muscles  on  the  front  of  the  body. 

On  the  side  of  the  neck  is  seen  a  broad  thin  muscle  which  throws 
the  skin  of  the  neck  into  wrinkles.  Those  which  move  the  neck 
are  concealed  by  this  one.  Further  back  is  seen  one  which  ele- 
vates the  shoulder.  On  the  top  of  the  shoulder  is  seen  the  muscle 
which  gives  the  rounded  form  to  that  part,  and  raises  the  arm.  On 
the  fore  part  of  the  chest  is  a  broad  triangular  muscle  which  draws 
the  arm  across  the  chest.  On  the  front  of  the  arm  is  a  large  muscle 
which  bends  the  elbow.  Behind  and  internal  to  it  is  seen 
part  of  the  large  extensor  of  the  elbow.  Immediately  below 
the  elbow  is  seen  a  small  muscle  running  obliquely  across,  which 
produces  pronation,  and  throws  the  hand  into  the  position  which 
the  right  hand  has  in  the  drawing.  Behind  this  are  seen  the  ex- 
tensors of  the  wrist  and  fingers,  and  on  the  fore  part  the  flexors. 

On  the  fore  part  of  the  belly  are  seen  two  strap-shaped  muscles, 
divided  by  several  cross  bands,  whose  use  is  to  bend  the  body  for- 
ward. The  two  broad  muscles  covering  the  sides  are  of  use  to 
compress  the  belly  in  the  action  of  expiration. 

Crossing  the  thigh  obliquely  is  a  long  strap-shaped  muscle  which 
bends  both  the  hip  and  knee.  Above  it  are  seen  portions  of  those 
which  adduct,  or  draw  it  towards  its  fellow.  Below  the  oblique 
muscle  are  seen  three  large  ones  which  are  inserted  into  the  knee- 
pan,  and  then  by  a  strong  tendon  into  the  tibia,  and  which  extend 
the  leg  upon  the  thigh. 

Down  the  front  of  the  leg,  the  tibia  or  shin-bone  is  seen  bare.  On 
its  inner  side  are  seen  projecting  the  muscles  of  the  calf,  whose  office 
it  is  to  extend  the  foot,  raising  the  heel  and  consequently  the  weight 
of  the  whole  body  from  off  the  ground.  On  its  outer  side  are  seen 
the  muscles  which  bend  the  foot  upon  the  leg,  and  extend  the  toes. 
The  skin  is  not  removed  from  the  hands  and  feet,  because  the  ten- 
dons and  small  muscles  which  lie  upon  them  are  too  minute  to  be 
shown  on  so  small  a  scale. 

Covering  the  upper  region  of  the  head,  we  have  a  thin  tendon, 
with  two  fleshy  bellies  before,  and  two  behind,  the  front  ones  seen 
in  the  figure.  The  hairy  scalp  is  fixed  to  the  outer  surface  of  this 
tendon,  while  it  is  very  loosely  connected  with  the  bone.  Hence 


THE    MUSCLES*  59 

when  the  anterior  bellied  contract,  the  scalp  is  drawn  forwards,  and 
when  the  posterior,  it  is  carried  back  again.  There  are  many 
individuals  who  have  no  power  of  moving  the  scalp  in  this  way. 
This  muscle  is  part  of  an  apparatus  which  is  very  fully  developed 
in  many  of  the  lower  animals,  for  wrinkling  the  skin  suddenly,  to 
drive  the  flies  off,  as  we  see  a  horse  do  every  now  and  then  on  a 
warm  day.  In  them,  a  thin  layer  of  this  kind  exists  all  over  the 
body,  but  in  man  it  is  not  needed,  as  the  hands  are  at  his  disposal 
to  do  the  same  office  more  perfectly.  Underneath  the  anterior 
bellies  are  two  small  muscles,  not  seen  in  the  figure,  running  from 
the  root  of  the  nose  outward  under  the  eyebrow,  and  fixed  to  the 
skin  there,  which  knit  the  eyebrows,  drawing  them  together.  On 
the  side  of  the  head  are  seen  two  thin  muscles  attached  to  the  ex- 
ternal ear,  for  drawing  it  upward  and  backward.  These,  like  the 
muscles  of  the  scalp,  are  rudimentary  in  the  human  species,  being 
of  use  only  in  those  animals  whose  ears  serve  them  for  fly-traps, 
and  can  be  directed  backward  or  forward  to  catch  sounds  coming 
from  either  quarter.  Those  men,  however,  who  have  much  power 
over  the  scalp  are  generally  able  to  shake  the  ears,  although  few 
of  them  are  aware  of  it.  I  have  seen  Prof.  Oliver  practise  this. 

Passing  around  the  eyelids  is  an  orbicular  muscle,  which  closes 
them.  It  will  be  observed  in  closing  the  eye  that  the  upper 
eyelid  only  comes  to  meet  the  other,  while  the  lower  one  moves 
horizontally  towards  the  nose ;  having  the  effect  of  carrying  any 
particles  of  dust  which  may  have  alighted  on  the  eye  towards  the 
nose,  whence  they  are  washed  out  by  the  tears,  or  pass  down  into 
the  nose.  That  part  of  the  muscle  which  lies  in  the  thickness  of 
the  lids  is  thin  and  pale,  and  is  all  that  acts  in  the  involuntary 
winking  which  takes  place  thousands  of  times  during  the  day,  in 
order  to  wipe  the  surface  of  the  eyes ;  while  the  parts  which  lie  on 
the  forehead,  the  temple,  and  the  cheek,  are  brought  into  action 
only  when  the  eye  is  compressed  strongly  by  an  exertion  of  the 
will.  In  doing  so,  it  wrinkles  up  the  skin  of  the  face,  as  is  seen 
in  a  hearty  laugh,  when  the  eyes  are  half  closed.  The  muscle 
which  raises  the  upper  eyelid  is  not  here  seen,  for  it  lies  deep 
within  the  orbit. 

Another  orbicular  muscle  closes  the  mouth,  and  is  connected 
above  to  the  partition  of  the  nose,  which  it  has  the  power  of  draw- 
ing down.  It  is  the  antagonist  to  all  the  other  muscles  which  eon- 
verge  to  the  mouth,  and  according  as  they  resist  it  in  particular 
directions,  it  produces  all  manner  of  distortions  of  the  mouth. 


60  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Lying  on  the  side  of  the  nose  is  a  small  triangular  muscle  which 
dilates  the  nostril.  Its  action  will  be  felt  if  the  nose  be  caught 
between  the  finger  and  thumb  ;  it  then  acts  almost  irresistibly,  ex- 
panding the  nostril  under  the  finger.  A  muscle  is  seen  running 
down  the  side  of  the  nose,  connected  to  its  wing  and  to  the  upper 
lip ;  it  raises  the  upper  lip,  showing  the  teeth,  and  dilating  at  the 
same  time  the  nostril.  Lying  deeper  than  this  muscle,  in  the  hol- 
low above  the  eyetooth,  is  a  small  muscle  running  downward  and 
outward,  which  lifts  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Further  out,  coming 
from  the  prominence  of  the  cheek-bone,  are  two  long  delicate 
muscles,  inserted  into  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  which  distort  it 
upwards  and  outwards,  producing  the  depressed  line  which  leads 
from  the  side  of  the  nose  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Below,  in 
the  middle,  is  a  muscle  which  depresses  the  under  lip,  and  at  the 
angle  is  a  triangular  one,  attached  like  the  preceding  to  the  lower 
jaw,  which  draws  down  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  All  these  are 
called  the  muscles  of  expression,  because  they  produce  all  the  dif- 
ferent modifications  of  the  features  which  express  the  feelings,  as 
beautifully  exhibited  by  Le  Brun  in  his  drawings  illustrative  of  the 
passions. 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  the  muscles  which  express  lively 
feeling  and  the  gayer  passions,  such  as  the  muscle  of  the  scalp^  the 
elevator  of  the  eyelid,  the  elevators  and  dilators  of  the  lips,  do  for 
the  most  part  either  raise  or  draw  the  parts  from  the  middle  line  of 
the  face  ;  while  those  which  manifest  the  sadder  feelings  and  the 
darker  passions,  as  the  one  which  knits  the  brows,  and  the  de- 
pressors of  the  lower  lip  and  of  the  angles,  either  depress  the  parts, 
or  draw  them  to  the  middle  line.  The  constant  and  habitual  exer- 
cise of  either  of  these  sets  of  muscles  leaves  corresponding  perma- 
nent folds  in  the  skin,  which  are  indicative  of  the  habitual  feelings 
and  passions  of  the  individual. 

On  the  side  of  the  face  we  see  two  muscles  which  are  not  con- 
nected with  the  features,  but  with  the  action  of  mastication.  One 
of  them  is  of  an  oblong  square  form,  lying  on  the  ascending  plate 
of  the  lower  jaw  ;  it  closes  the  jaw  forcibly,  and  may  be  felt  swell- 
ing by  the  finger  placed  upon  it  when  in  action.  Another  is  seen 
coming  forwards,  and  closing  the  side  of  the  mouth;  it  is  the  muscle 
which  enables  us  to  blow,  as  in  playing  on  the  flute,  or  in  working 
with  the  blowpipe. 

On  the  side  of  the  neck,  the  superficial  thin  muscle,  seen  in  figure 
7,  having  been  removed,  a  very  large  strong  muscle  is  seen  passing 


THE   MUSCLES.  61 

from  the  breast-bone  to  the  knob  behind  the  ear.  Its  effect  is  to  bend 
the  face  forward,  turning  it  at  the  same  time  to  the  other  side  ;  and 
when  the  muscles  of  the  two  sides  act  together,  they  simply  bend 
the  neck  forward.  Above  and  in  front  of  this  one,  are  seen  three 
narrow  strap-shaped  muscles,  which  pull  down  the  windpipe,  as  in 
singing  the  lower  notes  of  the  scale.  Higher  up,  three  small  mus- 
cles are  seen  attached  also  to  the  windpipe,  and  in  front  to  the  jaw, 
which  have  the  opposite  effect  of  raising  the  wind-pipe,  as  in  sing- 
ing the  higher  notes,  and  in  the  act  of  swallowing. 

There  are  some  muscles  connected  with  internal  organs,  which 
will  be  noticed  in  describing  them,  and  giving  a  history  of  their 
functions.  Let  us  now  proceed  to  inquire  into  their  physiology. 

The  property  which  muscles  possess,  and  which  distinguishes 
them  from  every  other  tissue  in  the  body,  is  their  contractility. 
This  is  quite  different  from  elasticity  ;  it  is  the  power  of  actively 
shortening  themselves.  This  power  is  constantly  in  action  ;  for 
though  we  speak  of  the  limbs  being  at  rest,  and  the  muscles  relaxed, 
they  are  never  really  so  ;  they  are  constantly  in  such  a  state  of 
tension  as  to  balance  their  opponents,  although  not  endeavoring  to 
overcome  them.  Were  this  not  the  case,  time  would  be  lost  in 
bringing  the  muscles  into  an  active  state  when  they  are  wanted  to 
perform  any  action ;  but  as  they  are  constituted,  they  are  always 
tight,  and  ready  to  become  strained  the  moment  the  stimulus  of  the 
will  reaches  them.  Their  irritability  is  a  quality  somewhat  different 
from  their  contractility,  expressing  their  capability  of  being  excited 
to  exertion  by  certain  stimulants.  If  in  the  living  body,  or  one 
newly  dead,  a  muscle  be  pricked  with  a  sharp  instrument,  it  will 
immediately  contract,  as  has  been  already  stated  in  the  commence- 
ment of  this  chapter.  This  tendency  to  show  its  contractility  on 
the  application  of  a  stimulus  is  its  irritability.  This  power  of 
being  excited  becomes  diminished  by  long  exercise,  and  hence  it 
is  that  after  fatigue  we  feel  scarcely  able  to  crawl,  and  that  over- 
driven cattle  often  fall  down  in  the  street ;  and  the  capacity  for 
renewed  contractions  is  only  recovered  after  sufficient  rest  and  a 
supply  of  food  has  been  taken 

There  is  one  cause  of  death  after  which  rigidity  does  not  occur, 
namely,  the  shock  of  electricity.  The  bodies  of  persons  killed  by 
lightning  never  become  stiff,  the  blood  in  them  does  not  coagulate, 
and  they  run  very  rapidly  into  putrefaction.  This  is  supposed  to 
be  owing  to  the  nervous  power  having  been  exhausted  by  the  shock, 


62  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

it  and  electricity  having  been  long  supposed  to  be  modifications  of 
the  same  agent. 

A  very  important  remark  with  regard  to  the  muscles  is  the  sacri- 
fice that  we  see  of  power  to  velocity  and  beauty  of  form.  The 
muscles  are  generally  inserted  disadvantageously  for  mechanical 
power.  For  instance,  the  muscles  which  bend  the  elbow  are 
inserted  into  the  forearm  about  one  inch  beyond  the  elbow-joint, 
while  the  weight  which  is  to  be  raised  in  the  hand  is  nearly  twelve 
times  further  off.  Hence  twelve  times  the  power  is  expended  in 
raising  the  weight  from  off  the  table,  if  the  arm  is  laid  flat  along  it, 
than  if  the  muscles  had  been  inserted  directly  into  the  hand.  But 
what  is  lost  in  power  is  gained  in  velocity ;  the  hand  moves  twelve 
times  faster  than  the  bone  near  the  elbow,  and  hence  the  force  with 
which  we  can  strike  a  sudden  blow.  A  man  can  cut  or  break  a  bar 
of  iron  with  a  stroke  of  an  axe  in  his  hand,  while  the  whole  weight 
of  his  body,  if  merely  let  down  upon  it,  could  not  even  drive  a 
nail. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  muscles  are  thrown  into  action 
through  the  medium  of  the  nerves.  Those  which  are  connected  by 
their  nerves  to  the  brain,  are  voluntary  muscles ;  but  there  are 
many,  such  as  the  heart,  and  those  for  carrying  on  respiration  and 
for  keeping  the  bowels  in  motion,  which  are  not  dependent  on  the 
brain,  and  consequently  not  subject  to  the  will ;  because  if  they 
had  been  so,  and  the  individual  were  to  forget  to  keep  them  going, 
life  would  be  at  once  extinguished.  There  is,  therefore,  a  distinc- 
tion of  muscles  into  voluntary  and  involuntary,  but  the  prosecution 
of  this  subject  belongs  to  the  chapter  upon  the  nerves. 

The  tendons  of  the  muscles  expand  in  many  places  into  sheaths, 
with  which  all  the  limbs  are  covered.  These  are  shining  webs  of 
a  bluish  color,  which  keep  the  muscles  in  their  places,  and  prevent 
them  from  starting  out.  When  tendons  pass  over  bones,  or  through 
rings,  they  are  generally  surrounded  by  bags  of  the  same  nature  as 
the  synovial  membrane  of  the  joints,  which  have  the  effect  of  en- 
abling them  to  glide  easily,  and  without  friction.  Sometimes  these 
bags  enlarge,  and  form  firm  round  swellings,  particularly  on  the 
back  of  the  wrist,  where  they  are  popularly  called  "weeping  sinews." 
A  popular  cure  is  to  wear  a  shilling  or  a  piece  of  lead  firmly  tied 
over  it ;  another  plan  is  to  have  them  punctured  with  a  proper 
needle,  when  a  quantity  of  jelly  is  squeezed  out,  and  the  cure  is 
generally  completed  by  pressure  continued  for  a  few  days. 

The  muscles  are  the  seat  of  that  dull  long-continued  pain  which 


FIG.  4.  A  VIEW  OF  THE 
EXTENSOR  MUSCLES 
OF  THE  FINGERS. 


FIG.  3.    A    VIEW   OF   THE  POSTERIOR 

PART  OF  THE  BoDY. 


The  figures  refer  to  various  muscles,  which 
the  student  may  learn  and  write  down. 


1  The  common  extensor 
sending  2222  tendons  to 
each  figure.  3  The  posterior 
annular  ligament. 


THE  MUSCLES.  63 

is  called  chronic  rheumatism.  They  are  scarcely  subject  to  any 
diseases,  but  occasionally  they  tear  themselves,  or  rupture  their 
tendons,  by  too  violent  and  sudden  exertion.  The  tendon  which 
is  most  apt  to  suffer  is  that  called  the  tendon  of  Achilles,*  pass- 
ing from  the  strong  muscle  of  the  calf  down  to  the  end  of  the 
heel  bone  ;  instant  lameness  is  the  consequence,  which  continues 
till  the  tendon  becomes  re-united.  This  is  procured  by  keeping 
the  foot  in  a  bandage,  or  a  boot  made  for  the  purpose,  by  which  the 
heel  is  drawn  up,  so  as  to  have  the  torn  surfaces  as  near  to  one 
another  as  possible. 

When  a  bone  is  broken,  it  must  be  obvious  that  the  muscle  will 
no  longer  produce  the  natural  action  which  the  bone  served  to  direct, 
but  will  draw  the  piece  that  is  broken  off  into  some  place  where  it 
ought  not  to  be.  When  the  thigh-bone  is  broken,  for  example,  the 
strong  muscles  which  pass  along  it  from  the  pelvis  to  the  leg,  pull 
up  the  lower  fragment,  so  that  the  limb  becomes  shortened.  It  is 
also  liable  to  be  distorted  by  the  loose  piece  being  pushed  to  one 
side  or  other.  In  treating  fractures,  we  require,  therefore,  first  to 
reduce  them,  or  bring  the  broken  ends  into  their  proper  places,  and 
then  we  have  to  maintain  them  in  apposition,  by  the  application  of 
an  apparatus  which  will  keep  them  immovable,  till  union  has  been 
obtained. 


NAMES,  ORIGIN,  INSERTION,  AND  USES  OF  MUSCLES. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  INTEGUMENTS  OF  THE  CRANIUM. 

Occipito-frontalis  arises  from  the  upper  ridge  of  the  occipital 
bone  ;  its  aponeurosis  covers  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  Inserted 
into  the  skin  of  the  eyebrows  and  root  of  the  nose.  Use — To  pull 
the  skin  of  the  head  backwards,  and  to  raise  the  eyebrows  and  skin 
of  the  forehead. 

Corrugator  supercilii  arises  above  the  root  of  the  nose.  In- 
serted into  the  inner  part  of  the  occipito-frontalis.  Use — To  wrinkle 
the  eyebrows. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    EYELIDS. 

Orbicularis  palpebrarum  arises  from  around  the  outer  edge  of 

*  So  called  from  the  mythological  fable,  that  -when  Thetis  dipped  her  son  Achilles  in 
the  river  Styx,  to  render  him  invulnerable,  she  held  him  with  her  finger  and  thumb  by 
this  tendon.  Hence  this  part  escaped  the  contact  of  the  stream,  and  it  was  here  that 
he  received  his  death  wound. 


64  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  orbit.     Inserted  into  the  inner  corner  of  the  eyes.    Use — To 
shut  the  eyes. 

Levator  palpebra  superioris^  arises  from  the  bottom  of  the  orbit, 
near  the  optic  foramen.  Inserted  into  the  cartilage  of  the  tarsus  of 
the  upper  eyelid.  Use — To  open  the  eye  by  raising  the  upper 
eyelid. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    EYEBALL. 

Rectus  superior — rectus  inferior — rectus  internus — rectus  exter- 
nuS)  arises  from  around  the  optic  foramen  of  the  sphenoid  bone,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  orbit.  Inserted  into  the  anterior  part  of  the 
tunica  sclerotica,  opposite  to  each  other.  The  action  of  the  rectus 
superior  is  to  raise  the  eye  upwards — of  the  inferior,  to  pull  it 
downwards — of  the  internus,  to  turn  it  to  the  nose — of  the  externus, 
to  move  it  outwards. 

Obliquus  superior  arises  near  the  optic  foramen  and  passes 
through  a  trochlea  in  the  internal  canthus  of  the  eye,  and  is  re- 
flected to  be  inserted  into  the  posterior  part  of  the  bulb,  between 
the  rectus  and  the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve.  Use — To  roll  the 
eye,  and  turn  the  pupil  downwards  and  outwards. 

Obliquus  inferior  arises  from  the  ductus  nasalis,  and  is  inserted 
opposite  to  the  former.  Use — To  roll  the  eye. 

MUSCLES    OP   THE   NOSE    AND    MOUTH. 

Levator  labii  superioris  alaque  nasi  arises  from  the  nasal  process 
of  the  superior  maxillary  bone.  Inserted  into  the  upper  lip  and 
ala  of  the  nose.  Use — It  raises  the  upper  lip  and  dilates  the 
nostrils. 

Levator  labii  superioris  proprius  arises  from  the  upper  jaw,  under 
the  orbit.  Inserted  into  the  middle  of  the  lip.  Use — To  pull  the 
Upper  lip  directly  upwards. 

Levator  anguli  oris  arises  from  the  orbitar  foramen  of  the  sup. 
max.  bone.  Inserted  into  the  orbicularis,  at  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.  Use — To  raise  the  corner  of  the  mouth. 

Zygomaticus  major  arises  from  the  os  jugale,  near  the  zygomatic 
future  and  runs  downwards.  Inserted  into  the  angle  of  the  mouth, 
with  the  depressor  of  the  lip.  Use — To  inflate  the  cheek  and  raise 
the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

Zygomaticus  minor  arises  above  the  zygomaticus  major.  In- 
serted into  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Use — To  raise  the  angle  of  the 
mouth  outwards. 

Buccinator  arises  from  the  sockets  of  the  last  molares,  and  the 


THE    MUSCLES.  65 

coronoid  process  of  the  lower  jaw.  Inserted  into  the  angle  of  the 
mouth,  and  is  perforated  by  the  duct  of  the  parotid  gland.  Use — 
To  contract  the  mouth,  and  draw  the  angle  of  it  outwards  and 
backwards. 

Depressor  anguli  oris  arises  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  under 
jaw,  near  the  chin.  Inserted  into  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Use — 
To  draw  the  corner  of  the  mouth  downwards. 

Depressor  labii  inferioris  arises  from  the  inferior  part  of  the 
lower  jaw,  next  the  chin.  Inserted  into  the  middle  of  the  under 
lip.  Use — To  draw  the  under  lip  downwards  and  outwards. 

Orbicularis  oris  ;  this  muscle  surrounds  the  lips,  and  is  in  a  great 
measure  formed  by  the  buccinator,  zygomatici,  and  others,  which 
move  the  lip.  Use — To  shut  the  mouth  by  contracting  the  lips. 

Depressor  libii  superior  is  alcequa  nisi  arises  from  the  sockets  of 
the  upper  incisor  teeth.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  ala  nasi  and 
upper  lip.  Use — To  pull  the  ala  nasi  and  upper  lip  down. 

Constrictor  nasi,  arises  from  the  root  of  one  wing  of  the  nose, 
and  goes  across  the  other.  Use — To  compress  the  wings  of  the 
nose. 

Levator  menti  vel  labii  inferioris  arises  from  the  lower  jaw,  at 
the  root  of  the  incisors.  Inserted  into  the  skin  in  the  centre  of  the 
chin.  Use — To  raise  the  under  lip  and  skin  of  the  chin. 

MUSCLES    OF    THE    EXTERNAL    EAR. 

Superior  auris  arises  from  the  tendon  of  the  occipito-frontalis, 
above  the  ear.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  cartilaginous  tube  of 
the  ear.  Use — To  draw  the  ear  upwards,  and  make  it  tense. 

Anterior  auris  arises  near  the  back  part  of  the  zygoma.  In- 
serted into  the  eminence  behind  the  helix.  Use — To  raise  the 
eminence  forwards. 

Posterior  auris  arises  from  the  mastoid  process  by  two,  and 
sometimes  three,  sasciculi.  Inserted  into  the  septum  that  divides 
the  scapha  and  concha.  Use — To  draw  the  ear  back,  and  stretch 
the  concha. 

Helicis  major  arises  from  the  upper,  anterior,  and  acute  part  of 
the  helix.  Inserted  into  th*»  cartilages  of  the  helix,  a  little  above 
the  tragus.  Use — To  depress  the  upper  part  of  the  helix. 

Helicis  minor  arises  from  the  inferior  and  anterior  part  of  the 
helix.  Inserted  into  the  cms  of  the  helix.  Use — To  contract  the 
fissure. 

Tragicus  arises  from  the  outer  and  middle  part  of  the  concha, 

5 


66  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

near  the  tragus.  Inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  tragus.  Use — 
to  depress  the  concha,  and  pull  the  tragus  a  little  putwards. 

Antitragus  arises  from  the  root  of  the  inner  part  of  the  helix. 
Inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  antitragus.  Use — To  dilate  the 
mouth  of  the  concha. 

Transversus  auris  arises  from  the  upper  part  of  the  concha.  In- 
serted into  the  inner  part  of  the  helix.  Use — To  draw  these  parts 
towards  each  other. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    INTERNAL    EAR. 

Laxator  tympani  arises  from  the  spinous  process  of  the  sphsenoid 
bone.  Inserted  into  the  long  process  of  the  malleus.  Use — To 
draw  the  malleus  obliquely  forward  towards  its  origin. 

Tensor  tympani  arises  from  the  cartilaginous  extremity  of  the 
Eustachian  tube.  Inserted  into  the  handle  of  the  malleus.  Use — 
To  pull  the  malleus  and  membrane  of  the  tympanum  towards  the 
petrous  portion. 

Stapedius  arises  from  a  little  cavern  in  the  petrous  portion,  near 
the  cells  of  the  mastoid  process.  Inserted  into  the  posterior  part 
of  the  head  of  the  stapes.  Use — To  draw  the  stapes  obliquely 
upwards  towards  the  cavern. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    LOWER   JAW. 

Temporalis  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  parietal  bone  and  os 
fronds,  squammous  part  of  the  temporal  bone,  back  part  of  the  os 
jugale,  the  temporal  process  of  the  sphsenoid  bone,  and  the  apone- 
urosis  which  covers  it.  Inserted  into  the  coronoid  process  of  the 
lower  jaw,  its  fibres  being  bundled  together  and  pressed  into  a 
small  compass,  so  as  to  pass  under  the  jugum,  or  zygoma.  Use — 
To  move  the  lower  jaw  upwards. 

Masseter  arises  from  the  sup.  max.  bone,  near  the  os  jugale,  and 
from  the  anterior  part  of  the  zygoma.  Inserted  into  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw  upwards  to  the  basis  of  the  coronoid  process.  Use — To 
raise  and  move  the  jaw  a  little  forwards  and  backwards. 

Pterygoideus  internus  arises  from  the  internal  pterygoid  process 
of  the  sphsenoid  bone.  Inserted  into  the  lower  jaw,  on  its  inner 
side,  and  near  its  angle.  Use — To  raise  the  lower  jaw  and  draw  it 
a  little  to  one  side. 

Pterygoideus  externus  arises  from  the  external  pterygoid  process. 
Inserted  into  the  condyloid  process  of  the  lower  jaw  and  capsular 
ligament.  Use — To  move  the  jaw,  and  to  prevent  the  ligature  of 
the  jaw  from  being  pinched. 


THE  MUSCLES.  67 

MUSCLES  WHICH  APPEAR  ABOUT  THE  ANTERIOR  PART  OF  THE 

NECK. 

Platysma  moyoides  arises  from  the  cellular  membrane  covering 
the  pectoral  and  deltoid  muscles.  Inserted  into  the  side  of  the 
chin  and  integuments  of  the  cheek.  Use — To  draw  the  cheeks 
and  skin  of  the  face  downwards. 

Sterno-cleido-mastoideus  arises  from  the  upper  part  of  the  sternum, 
and  fore  part  of  the  clavicle.  Inserted  into  the  mastoid  process 
and  as  far  back  as  the  occipital  suture.  Use — To  move  the  head  to 
one  side,  and  bend  it  forwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    BETWEEN    THE    LOWER   JAW  AND  OS  HYOIDES. 

Digastricus  arises  from  a  fossa  at  the  root  of  the  mastoid  process, 
inserted  into  the  lower  and  anterior  part  of  the  chin.  ,Use — To 
draw  the  lower  jaw  downwards. 

Mylo-hyoideus  rises  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  jaw-bone.  In- 
serted into  the  basis  of  the  os  hyoides.  Use — To  move  the  os 
hyoides  upwards. 

Genio-Hyoideus  arises  from  the  inside  of  the  chin.  Inserted  into 
the  basis  of  the  os  hyoides.  Use — To  move  the  os  hyoides  up- 
wards. 

Genio-Glossus  arises  from  the  inside  of  the  chin.  Inserted  into 
the  tongue,  forming  part  of  its  substance.  Use — To  move  the 
tongue  in  various  directions. 

Hyo-glossus  arises  from  the  horn,  basis,  and  cartilage  of  the  os 
hyoides.  Inserted  info  the  tongue  laterally.  Use — To  draw  the 
tongue  downwards  and  inwards. 

Lingualis  arises  from  the  root  of  the  tongue  laterally.  Inserted 
into  the  extremity  of  the  tongue.  Use — To  shorten  and  draw  the 
tongue  backwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    BETWEEN    THE    OS    HYOIDES    AND   TRUNK. 

Sterno-hyoideus  arises  from  the  sternum  and  clavicle.  Inserted 
into  the  basis  of  the  os  hyoides.  Use — To  draw  the  os  hyoides 
downwards. 

Omo-hyoideus  arises  near  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 
Inserted  into  the  basis  of  the  os  hyoides.  Use — To  draw  the  os 
hyoides  downwards. 

Sterno-thyroideus  arises  from  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the 
sternum.  Inserted  into  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Use — To  pull  the 
thyroid  cartilage  downwards. 


68  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

Thyreo-hyoideus  arises  from  part  of  the  basis  and  horn  of  the  os 
hyoides.  Inserted  into  the  side  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Use — • 
To  raise  the  cartilage  and  depress  the  bone. 

Crico-thyroideus  arises  from  the  side  of  the  cricoid  cartilage.  In- 
serted into  the  inferior  horn  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Use — To 
pull  the  thyroid  cartilage  towards  the  cricoid. 

MUSCLES     SITUATED     BETWEEN    THE    LOWER   JAW    AND    OS    HYOIDES, 

LATERALLY. 

Stylo-glossus  arises  from  the  apex  of  the  styloid  process.  In- 
serted into  the  side  of  the  root  of  the  tongue.  Use — To  pull  the 
tongue  backwards. 

Stylo-hyoideus  arises  from  the  basis,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
styloid  process.  Inserted  into  the  basis  of  the  os  hyoides.  Use — 
To  draw  the  os  hyoides  upwards. 

Stylo-pharyngeus  arises  from  the  root  of  the  styloid  process. 
Inserted  into  the  edge  of  the  pharynx,  and  back  of  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage. Use — To  dilate  the  pharynx,  and  raise  the  cartilage. 

Circumflexus  arises  near  the  Eustachian  tube,  and  passes  through 
the  hamulus  of  the  pterygoid  process,  to  be  inserted  into  the  velum 
pendulum  palati.  Use — To  draw  the  velum  pendulum  palati  ob- 
liquely downwards,  and  stretch  it. 

Levator  palati  mollis  arises  from  the  point  of  the  os  petrosum, 
the  Eustachian  tube,  and  sphsenoid  bone.  Inserted  into  the  velum 
pendulum  palati,  being  expanded  upon  it.  Use — To  pull  the  velum 
pendulum  backwards  and  upwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ABOUT    THE    ENTRY    OF    THE    FAUCES. 

Constrictor  ist  hm  faucicum  arises  near  the  root  of  the  tongue, 
on  each  side,  and  goes  round,  to  be  inserted  into  the  middle  of  the 
velum  pendulum  palati,  near  the  uvula.  Use — To  raise  the  tongue, 
and  draw  the  velum  towards  it. 

Palato-pharyngeus  arises  from  the  middle  of  the  soft  palate,  goes 
round  the  entry  of  the  fauces,  the  tendon  of  the  circumflexus  palati, 
and  velum  pendulum  palati,  to  be  inserted  into  the  upper  and  pos- 
terior part  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Use — To  contract  the  arch  of 
the  fauces. 

Jlzygos  uvulae  arises  from  the  commissure  of  the  ossa  palati. 
Inserted  into  the  extremity  of  the  uvula.  Use — To  shorten  and 
raise  the  uvula. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ON    THE    POSTERIOR   PART    OF    THE    PHARYNX. 

Constrictor  pharyngis  inferior  arises  from  the  cricoid  and  thy- 


THE    MUSCLES,  69 

roid  cartilages.  Inserted  into  the  middle  of  the  pharynx.  Use  — 
To  compress  part  of  the  pharynx. 

Constrictor  pharyngis  medius  arises  from  the  horns  and  appendix 
of  the  os  hyoides.  Inserted  into  the  ambit  of  the  pharynx.  Use 
— To  compress  the  pharynx,  and  draw  the  os  hyoides  upwards. 

Constrictor  pharyngis  superior  arises  from  the  pterygoid  process, 
the  lower  jaw,  and  the  cuneiform  process  of  the  os  occipitis.  In- 
serted into  the  middle  of  the  pharynx.  Use — To  move  the  pharynx 
upwards  and  forwards,  and  to  compress  its  upper  part. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ABOUT   THE    GLOTTIS. 

Crico-arytanoideus  posticus  arises  from  the  cricoid  cartilage  pos- 
teriorly. Inserted  into  the  back  of  the  arytsenoid  cartilage.  Use 
— To  open  the  glottis. 

Crico-arytanoideus  later alis  arises  from  the  side  of  the  cricoid 
cartilage.  Inserted  into  the  side  of  the  arytsenoid  cartilage.  Use 
— To  open  the  glottis. 

Thyreo-aryt&noideus  arises  from  the  back  of  the  thyroid  cartilage. 
Inserted  into  the  fore  part  of  the  arytsenoid  cartilage.  Use — To 
draw  the  arytasnoid  cartilage  forward. 

Aryt&noideus  obliquus  arises  from  the  root  of  one  arytaBnoid -car- 
tilage. Inserted  into  the  extremity  of  the  other.  Use — To  draw 
them  towards  each  other. 

Arytanoideus  transversus  arises  from  one  of  the  arytsenoid  car- 
tilages. Inserted  into  the  other  arytsenoid  cartilage.  Use — To 
shut  the  glottis. 

Tyreo-epiglottideus  arises  from  the  thyroid  cartilage.  Inserted 
into  the  side  of  the  epiglottis.  Use — To  pull  the  epiglottis  obliquely 
downwards. 

Aryt&no-epiglottideus  arises  from  the  upper  part  of  the  arytsenoid 
cartilage  laterally.  Inserted  into  the  side  of  the  epiglottis.  Use 
— To  move  the  epiglottis  outwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ON    THE    ANTERIOR   PART   OF   THE    ABDOMEN. 

Obliquus  descendens  externus  arises  from  the  lower  edges  of  the 
eight  inferior  ribs  near  the  cartilages.  Inserted  into  the  linea  alba, 
ossa  pubis,  and  spine  of  the  ilium.  Use — To  compress  the  abdomen. 

Obliquus  ascendens  internus  arises  from  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  three  last  lumbar  vertebrae,  back  of  the  sacrum,  and  spine  of  the 
ilium.  Inserted  into  the  cartilages  of  all  the  false  ribs,  linea  alba, 
pubis,  and  sternum,  by  a  flat  tendon.  Use — To  compress  the  ab- 
domen. 


70  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Transversalis  dbdominis  arises  from  the  cartilages  of  the  seven 
lower  ribs,  and  the  transverse  processes  of  the  four  lower  lumbar 
vertebra?  and  spine  of  the  ilium.  Inserted  into  the  linea  alba 
throughout  its  whole  length,  and  into  the  ensiform  cartilage.  Use 
— To  compress  the  abdominal  viscera. 

Rectus  abdominis  arises  from  the  outside  of  the  sternum  and 
xyphoid  cartilage.  Inserted  into  the  side  of  the  symphisis  of  the 
pubis.  Use — To  compress  the  abdomen  and  bend  the  trunk. 

Pyramidalis  arises  from  the  anterior  upper  part  of  the  pubis. 
Inserted  into  the  linea  alba,  below  the  umbilicus.  Use — To  assist 
the  lower  portion  of  the  rectus. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    ANUS. 

Sphincter  ani  arises  from  the  skin  and  fat  surrounding  the  anus 
on  both  sides.  Inserted  into  the  perineum,  acceleratores  urinaB,  and 
transversus  perinsei.  Use — To  shut  the  passage  through  the  anus 
into  the  rectum. 

Levator  ani  arises  from  the  internal  surface  of  the  pubis,  ilium, 
and  ischium,  of  both  sides,  in  a  radiated  manner.  Inserted  into  the 
sphincter  ani,  acceleratores  urinse,  and  os  coccygis,  and  surrounds 
the  rectum,  neck  of  the  bladder,  &c.,  like  a  funnel.  Use — To  draw 
the  rectum  up  after  the  dejection  of  the  faeces,  and  to  assist  in  shut- 
ting it. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED   WITHIN    THE    PELVIS. 

Obturator  internus  arises  from  the  foramen  ovale  obturator  liga- 
ment, ilium,  ischium,  and  pubis.  Inserted  into  a  large  pit  between 
the  trochanters  of  the  femur.  Use — To  roll  the  femur  obliquely 
outwards. 

Coccygeus  arises  from  the  spinous  process  of  the  ischium.  In- 
serted into  the  extremity  of  the  sacrum  and  os  coccygis.  Use — To 
move  the  coccyx  forwards  and  inw^ards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    WITHIN    THE    CAVITY   OF   THE    ABDOMEN. 

Quadratus  lumborum  arises  from  the  posterior  part  of  the  spine 
of  the  ilium.  Inserted  into  the  transverse  apophyses  of  the  loins 
and  last  spurious  rib.  Use — To  support  the  spine  and  draw  it  to 
one  side.  m  \  •> 

Psoas  parvus  arises  from  the  transverse  process  of  the  last  dorsal 
vertebrae.  Inserted  into'  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  near  the  place  of 
the  acetabulum.  Use — To  bend  the  loins  forwards. 


THE    MUSCLES.  71 

Psoas  magnus  arises  from  the  bodies  and  processes  of  the  last 
dorsal  and  all  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  os  femoris, 
a  little  below  the  trochanter  minor.  Use — To  bend  the  thigh  for- 
wards. 

Iliacus  inter nus  arises  from  the  internal  surface  of  the  spine  of 
the  ilium.  Inserted  into  the  femur  in  common  with  the  psoas  mag- 
nus. Use — To  assist  the  psoas  magnus. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED   ON   THE    ANTERIOR   PART   OF   THE    THORAX. 

Pectoralis  major  arises  from  the  clavicle,  sternum,  and  seven  true 
ribs.  Inserted  into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  humerus.  Use 
— To  draw  the  arm  forwards,  or  obliquely  forwards. 

Subclavius  arises  from  the  cartilage  of  the  first  rib.  Inserted  into 
the  under  surface  of  the  clavicle.  Use — To  move  the  clavicle  down- 
wards. 

Pectoralis  minor  arises  from  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs.  In- 
serted into  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula.  Use — To  roll  the 
scapula. 

Serratus  major  anticus  arises  from  the  eight  superior  ribs.  In- 
serted into  the  basis  of  the  scapula.  Use— To  bring  the  scapula 
forwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED   BETWEEN   THE   RIBS    AND   WITHIN  THE  THORAX. 

Inter  cost  ales  externi  arises  from  the  lower  edge  of  each  upper  rib. 
Inserted  into  the  superior  edge  of  each  lower  rib.  Use — To  elevate 
the  ribs. 

Intercostales  interni,  like  the  former,  the  fibres  are  directed  from 
behind  forwards. 

Triangularis  arises  from  the  middle  and  inferior  part  of  the 
sternum.  Inserted  into  the  cartilages  of  the  five  last  true  ribs. 
Use — To  depress  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs. 

MUSCLES     SITUATED    ON    THE    ANTERIOR   PART    OF   THE    NECK,    CLOSE 
TO    THE    VERTEBRA. 

Longus  colli  arises  from  the  bodies  of  the  three  upper  dorsal  and 
transverse  processes  of  the  four  last  cervical.  Inserted  into  the 
anterior  tubercle  of  the  dentatus.  Use — To  pull  the  neck  to  one 
side. 

Rectus  internus  capitis  major  arises  from  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  five  last  cervical  vertebrse.  Inserted  into  the  cuneiform  pro- 
cess of  the  os  occipitis.  Use — To  bend  the  head  forwards. 

Rectus  internus  capitis  minor  arises  from  the  fore  part  of  the  atlas. 


72  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Inserted  into  the  os  occipitis,  near  the  condyloid  process.     Use — 
To  assist  the  former. 

Rectus  capitis  lateralis  «arises  from  the  transverse  process  of  the 
atlas.  Inserted  into  the  os  occipitis,  near  the  mastoid  process. 
Use — To  move  the  head  to  one  side. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ON   THE    POSTERIOR   PART    OF    THE    TRUNK. 

Trapezius  arises  from  the  os  occipitis  and  the  spinous  processes 
of  all  the  vertebra?  of  the  neck  and  back.  Inserted  into  the  clavi- 
cle, part  of  the  acromion,  and  the  spine  of  the  scapula.  Use— --To 
move  the  scapula,  bend  the  neck,  and  pull  the  head  backwards. 

Latissimus  dorsi  arises  from  the  spine  of  the  ilium,  spinous  pro- 
cesses of  the  sacrum,  lumbar,  and  inferior  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  ad- 
heres to  the  scapula  and  inferior  false  ribs.  Inserted  into  the  os 
humeri,  between  the  two  tuberosities  in  the  edge  of  the  groove  for 
the  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle.  Use — To  draw  the  os  humeri 
backwards,  and  to  roll  it  upon  its  axis. 

Serratus  posticus  inferior  arises  from  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
two  last  dorsal  and  three  lumbar  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  lower 
edge  of  the  three  or  four  lowermost  ribs,  near  their  cartilages.  Use 
— To  draw  the  ribs  outwards,  downwards,  and  backwards. 

Rhomboideus  arises  from  the  spinous  processes  of  the  last  three 
cervical,  and  first  four  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  basis  of 
the  scapula,  at  its  upper  and  lower  part.  Use — To  move  the 
scapula  upwards  and  backwards. 

Splenius  arises  from  the  spines  of  the  four  last  cervical  and  four 
superior  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  two  first  cervical  ver- 
tebra, and  the  side  of  the  os  occipitis.  Use — To  move  the  head 
backwards,  and  also  to  one  side. 

Serratus  superior  posticus  arises  from  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  three  last  cervical,  and  two  superior  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted 
into  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  ribs,  by  three  neat  fleshy  tongues. 
Use — To  expand  the  thorax  by  elevating  the  ribs. 

Spinalis  dorsi  arises  from  two  spinous  processes  of  the  loins,  and 
three  lower  of  the  back.  Inserted  into  all  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  back,  except  the  first.  Use — To  extend  the  vertebrae. 

Levatores  costarum  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
last  cervical  and  .the  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  angles  of 
the  ribs.  Use — To  lift  the  ribs  upwards. 

Sacro-lumbalis  arises  from  the  sacrum,  spine  of  the  ilium,  and  the 
spinous  and  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  Inserted 


THE   MUSCLES.  73 

into  the  lower  edge  of  each  rib  by  a  flat  tendon.  Use— To  draw 
the  ribs  downwards,  to  move  the  body  upon  its  axis,  to  assist  the 
long,  dorsi,  and  to  turn  the  neck  back,  or  to  one  side. 

Longissimus  dorsi  arises  from  the  same  parts  as  the  former,  and 
by  one  common  broad  tendon.  Inserted  into  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  all  the  dorsal  and  one  cervical  vertebrae.  Use — To  stretch 
the  vertebrae  of  the  back,  and  keep  the  trunk  erect. 

Complexus  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  four  in- 
ferior cervical,  and  seven  superior  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into 
the  middle  of  the  os  occipitis,  at  its  tubercle.  Use — To  draw  the 
head  backwards. 

Trachelo-mastoideus .  arises  from  the  transvere  processes  of  the 
five  lower  cervical  and  three  upper  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into 
the  os  occipitis,  behind  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal  bone. 
Use — To  draw  the  head  backwards. 

Levator  scapulae  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  four 
superior  cervical  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  upper  angle  of  the 
scapula.  Use — To  move  the  scapula  forwards  and  upwards. 

Semi-spinalis  dorsi  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
7th,  8th,  9th,  and  10th  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  spinous 
processes  of  the  four  superior  dorsal  and  the  last  cervical  vertebrae. 
Use — To  extend  the  spine  obliquely  backwards. 

Multifidus  spina  arises  from  the  sacrum,  ilium,  oblique  and  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  lumbar,  the  transverse  of  the  dorsal,  and  four 
cervical  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  spinous  processes  of  the  lum- 
bar, dorsal,  and  cervical  vertebrae,  except  the  atlas.  Use — To 
extend  the  back  and  draw  it  backwards  or  to  one  side,  and  prevent 
the  spine  from  being  too  much  bent  forwards. 

Semi-spinalis  colli  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
six  upper  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  spinous  processes  of 
the  five  middle  cervical.  Use — To  stretch  the  neck  obliquely 
backwards. 

Transversalis  colli  arises  from  the  transverse  processes  of  the  five 
upper  dorsal  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  transverse  processes  of 
the  cervical  vertebras.  Use — To  turn  the  neck  obliquely  back- 
wards, and  to  one  side. 

Rectus  capitis  posticus  major  arises  from  the  transverse  process 
of  the  second  cervical  vertebra.  Inserted  into  the  lower  ridge  of 
the  os  occipitis.  Use — To  extend  the  head  and  draw  it  backwards. 

Rectus  capitis  posticus  minor  arises  from  the  first  vertebra  of  the 


74  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

neck.  Inserted  into  the  os  occipitis  at  its  tubercle.  Use — To 
assist  the  rectus  major. 

Obliquus  capitis  superior  arises  from  the  transverse  process  of  the 
atlas.  Inserted  into  the  end  of  the  lower  occipital  ridge.  Use — 
To  draw  the  head  backwards. 

Obliquus  capitis  inferior  arises  from  the  spinous  process  of  the 
dentatus.  Inserted  into  the  transverse  process  of  the  atlas.  Use — 
To  draw  the  face  to  one  side. 

Scalenus  arises  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  first  and  second  ribs. 
Inserted  into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae. 
Use — To  move  the  neck  forward  or  to  one  side. 

Interspinales  arises  between  the  spinous  processes  of  the  six  in- 
ferior cervical  vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebrae  above.  Use — To  draw  the  spinous  processes  towards 
each  other. 

Inter-transversales  arises  between  the  transverse  processes  of  the 
vertebrae.  Inserted  into  the  transverse  processes  of  the  vertebrae 
above.  Use — To  draw  the  transverse  processes  towards  each 
other. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    SUPERIOR   EXTREMITIES. 

Supra-spinatus  arises  from  the  basis,  spine,  and  upper  edge  of  the 
scapula.  Inserted  into  a  large  tuberosity  at  the  head  of  the  os 
humeri.  Use — To  raise  the  arm. 

Infra-spinatus  arises  from  the  cavity  below  the  spine  of  the  sca- 
pula. Inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  same  tuberosity.  Use — 
To  roll  the  os  humeri  outwards. 

Teres  minor  arises  from  the  inferior  edge  of  the  scapula.  In- 
serted into  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.  Use — To  assist 
the  former. 

Teres  major  arises  from  the  inferior  angle  and  edge  of  the  sca- 
pula. Inserted  into  the  side  of  the  groove  for  the  long  tendon  of 
the  biceps.  Use — To  assist  in  rotating  the  arm. 

Deltoides  arises  from  the  clavicle,  and  the  acromion  and  spine  of 
fhe  scapula.  Inserted  into  the  anterior  and  middle  part  of  the  os 
humeri.  Use — To  raise  the  arm. 

Coraco-brachialis  arises  from  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula. 
Inserted  into  the  middle  and  inner  side  of  the  os  humeri.  Use — 
To  roll  the  arm  forwards  and  upwards. 

Subscapularis  arises  from  the  basis,  superior  and  inferior  edge  of 
the  scapula.  Inserted  into  the  protuberance  at  the  head  of.  the  os 
humeri.  Use — To  roll  the  arm  inwards. 


THE   MUSCLES.  75 

MUSCLES    SITUATED   ON   THE    OS    HUMERI. 

Biceps  flexor  cubiti  arises  from  two  heads,  one  from  the  coracoid 
process,  the  other,  called  the  long  head,  from  the  edge  of  the 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula.  Inserted  into  the  tuberosity  at  the 
upper  ei\d  of  the  radius,  at  its  fore  part  and  a  little  below  its  neck. 
Use — To  bend  the  fore^arm,  which  it  does  with  with  great  strength, 
and  to  assist  the  supinators. 

Brachialis  internus  arises  from  the  os  humeri  at  each  side  of  the 
tendon  of  the  deltoides.  Inserted  into  the  coronoid  process  of  the 
ulna.  Use — To  assist  in  bending  the  fore-arm. 

Triceps  extensor  cubiti  arises  from  the  neck  of  the  scapula,  and 
the  neck  and  middle  of  the  humerus.  Inserted  into  the  upper  and 
outer  part  of  the  olecranon.  Use — To  extend  the  fore-arm. 

Anconeus  arises  from  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus.  In- 
serted into  the  back  part  of  the  ridge  of  the  ulna.  Use — To  assist 
in  extending  the  fore-arm. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ON   THE    FORE-ARM. 

Supinator  radii  longus  arises  from  the  external  condyle  of  the 
humerus.  Inserted  into  the  radius,  near  the  styloid  process.  Use 
— To  assist  in  turning  up  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Extensor  carpi  radialis  longior  arises  from  the  external  condyle 
of  the  humerus.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  fore- 
finger. Use — To  extend  the  wrist. 

Extensor  carpi  r.adialis  brevior  arises  from  the  external  condyle 
of  the  humerus.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  middle 
finger.  Use — To  assist  the  former. 

Extensor  digitorum  communis  arises  from  the  external  condyle 
of  the  os  humeri.  Inserted  into  the  back  of  all  the  bones  of  the 
fingers.  Use — To  extend  the  fingers. 

Extensor  minimi  digiti  arises  from  the  outer  condyle  of  the 
humerus.  Inserted  into  the  second  joint  of  the  little  finger.  Use 
— To  assist  in  extending  the  fingers. 

Extensor  carpi  ulnaris  arises  from  the  outer  condyle  of  the  os 
humeri.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  little  finger. 
Use — To  assist  in  extending  the  wrist. 

Flexor  carpi  ulnaris  arises  from  the  inner  condyle  of  the  humerus 
and  olecranon.  Inserted  into  the  os  pisiforme,  at  its  fore  part. 
Use — to  assist  in  bending  the  hand. 

Palmaris  longus    arises  from  the  internal   condyle  of  the  os 


76  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

humeri.     Inserted  into  the  annular  ligament  of  the  wrist,  and  there 
forms  the  aponeurosis  of  the  hand.     Use — To  bend  the  hand. 

Flexor  carpi  radialis  arises  from  the  internal  condyle  of  the  os 
humeri.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  fore-finger.  Use 
— To  bend  the  hand. 

Pronator  radii  teres  arises  from  the  internal  condyle  of  the 
humerus  and  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna.  Inserted  into  the  outer 
ridge  of  the  radius,  about  the  middle  of  its  length.  Use — To  roll 
the  hand  inwards. 

Supinator  radii  brevis  arises  from  the  outer  condyle  of  the 
humerus,  and  edge  of  the  ulna.  Inserted  into  the  anterior,  inner, 
and  upper  part  of  the  radius.  Use — To  roll  the  radius  outwards, 
and  assist  the  ancon«us. 

Extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis  manus  arises  from  the  middle 
of  the  ulna,  interosseous  ligament,  and  radius.  Inserted  into  the 
os  trapezium,  and  first  bone  of  the  thumb.  Use— To  stretch  the 
first  bone  of  the  thumb  outwards. 

Extensor  primi  internodii  arises  near  the  middle  of  the  ulna, 
interosseous  ligament,  and  radius.  Inserted  into  the  convex  part 
of  the  second  bone  of  the  thumb.  Use — To  extend  the  second 
bone  of  the  thumb  outwards. 

Extensor  secundi  internodii  arises  from  the  back  of  the  ulna  and 
interosseous  ligament.  Inserted  into  the  third  and  last  bone  of  the 
thumb.  Use — To  stretch  the  thumb  obliquely  backwards. 

Indicator  arises  from  the  middle  of  the  ulna.  Inserted  into  the 
metacarpal  bone  of  the  fore-finger.  Use — To  extend  the  fore- 
finger. 

Flexor  digitorum  sublimis  arises  from  the  inner  condyle  of  the 
os  humeri,.  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna,  and  upper  part  of  the 
radius.  Inserted  into  the  second  bone  of  each  finger,  after  being 
perforated  by  the  tendons  of  the  profundus.  Use — To  bend  the 
second  joint  of  the  fingers  upon  the  first,  and  the  first  upon  the 
metacarpal  bones. 

Flexor  digitorum  profundus  vel  perforans  arises  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  ulna,  and  interosseous  ligament.  Inserted  into  the  fore 
part  of  the  last  bone  of  each  of  the  fingers.  Use — To  bend  the 
last  joint  of  the  fingers. 

Flexor  longus  pollicis  arises  from  the  upper  and  fore  part  of  the 
radius.  Inserted  into  the  last  joint  of  the  thumb.  Use — To  bend 
the  last  joint  of  the  thumb. 

Pronator  radii  puadratus  arises  from  the  inner  and  lower  part  of 


THE   MUSCLES.  77 

the  ulna.     Inserted  into  the  radius  opposite  to  its  origin.     Use— -To 
roll  the  radius  inwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    CHIEFLY    ON    THE    HAND. 

JJmbricalesy  arises  from  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  profundus.  In- 
serted into  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  digitorum  communis.  Use 
— To  bend  the  first  and  extend  the  second  phalanx. 

Flexor  brevis  pollicis  manus  arises  from  the  os  trapezoides,  liga- 
ment of  the  wrist,  and  the  os  magnum.  Inserted  into  the  ossa 
sesnmoidea  and  second  bone  of  the  thumb.  Use — To  bend  the 
second  joint  of  the  thumb. 

Opponens  pollicis  arises  from  the  os  scaphoides  and  ligament  of 
the  wrist.  Inserted  into  the  first  bone  of  the  thumb.  Use — To 
bend  the  thumb. 

Mductor  pollicis  manus  arises  from  the  annular  ligament,  and  os 
trapezium.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  first  bone  of  the  thumb. 
Use — To  draw  the  thumb  from  the  fingers. 

Mductor  pollicis  manus  arises  from  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the 
middle  finger.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  first  bone  of  the  thumb. 
Use — To  pull  the  thumb  towards  the  fingers. 

Mductor  indicis  manus  arises  from  the  first  bone  of  the  thumb, 
and  os  trapezium.  Inserted  into  the  first  bone  of  the  fore-finger 
posteriorly.  Use — To  move  the  fore-finger  towards  the  thumb. 

Palmaris  brevis  arises  from  the  annular  ligament,  and  palmar 
aponeurosis.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  and  skin  of  the 
little  finger.  Use — To  contract  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Abductor  minimi  digiti  manus  arises  from  the  annular  ligament 
and  os  pisiforme.  Inserted  into  the  first  bone  of  the  little  finger. 
Use — To  draw  the  little  finger  from  the  rest. 

Abductor  minimi  digitis  arises  from  the  os  cuneiforme  and  carpal 
ligament.  Inserted  into  the  metacarpal  of  the  little  finger.  Use- 
To  move  that  bone  towards  the  rest. 

Flexor  parvus  minimi  digiti  arises  from  the  annular  ligament  and 
os  cuneiforme.  Inserted  into  the  first  bone  of  the  little  finger. 
Use — To  draw  the  little  finger  from  the  rest. 

Interossei  interni  and  interossei  externi  arise  between  the  meta- 
carpal bones,  to  the  sides  of  which  they  are  attached.  Use — To 
extend  the  fingers,  and  move  them  towards  the  thumb. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    INFERIOR   EXTREMITIES. 

Pectinalis  arises  from  the  anterior  edge  of  the  os  pubis.     Inserted 


78  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

into  the  upper  part  of  the  linea  aspera  of  the  femur.     Use — To 
bend  the  thigh. 

f  Jidductor  longus  femoris  arises  from  the  upper  and  fore  part 
of  the  pubis.  Inserted  into  the  middle  and  back  of  the  linea 
aspera.  Use — To  bend  the  thigh. 

Jidductor  brevis  femoris  arises  from  the  fore  part  and  ramus 
of  the  os  pubis.  Inserted  into  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the 
linea  aspera.  Use — To  bend  the  thigh,  and  move  it  inwards. 
Adductor  magnus  femoris  arises  from  the  lower  and  fore  part 
of  the  ramus  of  the  pubis.  Inserted  into  the  whole  length  of 
the  linea  aspera.  Use — To  move  the  thigh  inwards,  and  assist 
in  bending  it. 

Obturator  externus  arises  from  the  obturator  ligament,  and  half 
of  the  thyroid  hole.  Inserted  into  the  femur  near  the  root  of  the 
great  trochanter.  Use — To  pull  forwards  and  rotate  the  thigh. 

Gluteus  maximus  arises  from  the  spine  of  the  ilium,  posterior 
sacro-ischiatic  ligaments,  and  os  sacrum.  Inserted  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  linea  aspera  of  the  femur.  Use — To  extend  the  thigh, 
and  assist  in  its  rotary  motion. 

Gluteus  medius  arises  from  the  spine  and  superior  surface  of  the 
ilium.  Inserted  into  the  great  trochanter  of  the  os  femoris.  Use 
— To  assist  the  gluteus  maximus. 

Gluteus  minimus  arises  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  ilium  and 
border  of  its  great  notch.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  great  tro- 
chanter. Use — To  assist  the  former. 

Pyriformis  arises  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  os  sacrum.  In- 
serted into  a  cavity  at  the  root  of  the  great  trochanter.  Use — To 
roll  the  thigh  outwards. 

Gemini  arises  from  the  spine  and  tuberosity  of  the  ischium.  In- 
serted into  the  same  cavity  as  the  pyriformis.  Use — To  roll  the 
thigh  outwards. 

Quadratus  femoris  arises  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium.  In- 
serted into  a  ridge  between  the  two  trochanters.  Use— To  move 
the  thigh  outwards. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED    ON    THE    THIGH. 

Facialis  arises  from  the  upper  spinous  process  of  the  ilium.  In- 
serted into  the  inner  side  of  the  membranous  fascia  which  covers 
the  thigh.  Use — To  stretch  the  fascia. 

Sartorius  arises  from  the  upper  s-pinous  process  of  the  ilium. 


THE   MUSCLES.  79 

Inserted  into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia.  Use— To  bend 
the  leg  inwards. 

Gracilis  arises  from  the  fore  part  of  the  ischium  and  pubis.  In- 
serted into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia.  Use — To  bend 
the  leg. 

Reclus  femoris  arises  from  the  lower  spinous  process  of  the  ilium, 
and  edge  of  the  acetabulum.  Inserted  into  the  upper  and  fore  part 
of  the  patella.  Use — To  extend  the  leg, 

Vastus  externus  arises  from  the  root  of  the  great  trochanter,  and 
linea  aspera.  Inserted  into  the  upper  and  lateral  part  of  the  pa- 
tella. Use—To  extend  the  leg. 

Vastus  internus  arises  from  the  trochanter  minor,  and  the  linea 
aspera.  Inserted  into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  patella.  Use 
— To  extend  the  leg. 

Cruralis  arises  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  lesser  trochanter. 
Inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  patella.  Use — To  extend  the 
leg. 

Semi-tendinosus  arises  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium.  In- 
serted into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia.  Use — To  bend 
and  draw  the  leg  inwards. 

Semi-membranosus  arising  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 
Inserted  into  the  back  part  of  the  head  of  the  tibia.  Use — To  bend 
the  leg. 

Biceps  flexor  cruris  arises  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 
Inserted  into  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  tibia,  forming  the  outer 
hamstring.  Use — To  bend  the  leg. 

Popliteus  arises  from  the  external  condyle  of  the  thigh-bone. 
Inserted  into  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia.  Use — To  assist 
in  bending  the  leg. 

MUSCLES    SITUATED   ON   THE    LEG. 

Gastrocnemius  externus  arises  from  the  internal  and  external 
condyle  of  the  femur.  Inserted  into  the  os  calcis,  with  the  tendon 
of  the  soleus.  Use — To  extend  the  foot. 

Gastrocnemius  internus  arises  from  the  head  of  the  fibula,  and 
back  part  of  the  head  of  the  tibia.  Inserted  into  the  os  calcis  by  a 
common  tendon,  which  is  called  tendo-Achillis.  Use — To  ex- 
tend the  foot. 

Plantaris  arises  from  the  outer  condyle  of  the  os  femoris  and 
capsular  ligament.  Inserted  into  the  os  calcis,  near  the  tendo- 
Achillis.  Use — To  assist  in  extending  the  foot.  » 


80  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Tibialis  anticus  arises  from  the  upper  and  fore  part  of  the  tibia. 
Inserted  into  the  os  cuneiform  internum.  Use — To  bend  the  foot. 

Tibialis  posticus  arises  from  the  back  part  of  the  tibia,  interos- 
seous  ligament,  and  adjacent  part  of  the  fibula.  Inserted  into  the 
middle  cuneiform  bone,  and  upper  part  of  the  os  nayiculare.  Use 
— To  move  the  foot  inwards. 

Peroneus  longus  arises  from  the  head  of  the  tibia,  and  upper  and 
outer  part  of  the  fibula.  Inserted  into  the  metatarsal  bone  of  the 
great  toe.  Use — To  move  the  foot  outwards. 

Peroneus  brevis  arises  from  the  outer  and  fore  part  of  the  fibula. 
Inserted  into  the  metatarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe.  Use — To  assist 
the  peroneus  longus. 

Extensor  longus  digitorum  pedis  arises  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
tibia,  interosseous  ligament,  and  inner  edge  of  the  fibula.  Inserted 
into  the  first  joint  of  the  smaller  toes  by  four  tendons.  Use — To 
extend  the  toes,  and  separate  them  from  one  another. 

Extensor  proprius  pollicis  pedis  arises  from  the  upper  and  fore 
part  of  the  tibia.  Inserted  into  the  convex  surface  of  the  bones  of 
the  great  toe.  Use — To  extend  the  great  toe. 

Flexor  longus  perforans  arises  from  the  upper  and  inner  part  of 
the  tibia.  Inserted  into  the  last  bones  of  all  the  toes,  except  the 
great  toe,  by  four  tendons.  Use — To  bend  the  last  joint  of  the 
toes. 

Flexor  longus  pollicis  pedis  arises  from  a  little  below  the  head  of 
the  fibula.  Inserted  into  the  last  bone  of  the  great  toe.  Use — To 
bend  the  great  toe. 

MUSCLES    CHIEFLY    SITUATED    ON    THE    FOOT. 

Extensor  brevis  digitorum  pedis  arises  from  the  upper  and  anterior 
part  of  the  os  calcis.  Inserted  into  the  first  bone  of  the  great  and 
other  toes,  except  the  little.  Use— To  extend  the  toes. 

Flexor  sublimis  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  os  calcis.  In- 
serted into  the  second  phalanx  of  each  of  the  small  toes,  by  four 
tendons,  which  are  perforated  by  those  of  the  flex.  long.  dig.  ped. 
Use — To  bend  the  second  joint  of  the  toes. 

Lumbricales  pedis  arises  from  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  longus 
digitorum  pedis.  Inserted  into  the  tendinous  expansion  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  toes.  Use — To  draw  the  toes  inwards. 

Flexor  brevis  pollicis  pedis  arises  from  the  fore  part  of  the  os  calcis, 
and  external  cuneiform  bone.  Inserted  into  the  first  joint  of  the 


THE    MUSCLES, 


81 


great  toe  by  two.tendons.  Use — To  bend  the  first  joint  of  the  great 
toe. 

Mductor  pollicis  pedis  arises  from  the  inner  and  lower  part  of  the 
os  calcis.  Inserted  into  the  first  joint  of  the  great  toe.  Use — To 
move  the  great  toe  from  the  rest. 

Mductor  pollicis  pedis  arises  from  the  ligament  extended  from 
the  os  calcis  to  the  os  cuboides.  Inserted  into  the  outer  sesa- 
moid  bone,  or  first  joint  of  the  great  toe.  Use— To  draw  the  great 
toe  nearer  to  the  rest,  and  to  bend  it. 

Abductor  minimi  digiti  pedis  arises  from  the  tubes  of  the  os  calcis, 
and  metatarsal  bone  of  the  little  toe.  Inserted  into  the  first  joint 
of  the  little  toe  externally'.  Use — To  draw  the  little  toe  outwards. 

Flexor  brevis  minimi  digiti  pedis  arises  from  the  root  of  the  meta- 
tarsal bone  of  the  little  toe.  Inserted  into  the  root  of  the  first  bone 
of  the  little  toe.  Use — To  bend  the  little  toe. 

Transversalis  pedis  arises  from  the  ligament  connecting  the  bones 
of  the  tarsus.  Inserted  into  the  tendon  of  the  abductor  pollicis. 
Use — To  contract  the  foot. 

Inter ossei  pedis  inter ni  and  inter ossei  pedis  externi  arise  and  are 
inserted  between  the  metatarsal  bones.  Use — To  draw  the  smaller 
towards  the  great  toe,  and  assist  in  extending  the  toes. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL    INFERENCES. 

»  Having  treated  of  the  structure  and  use  of  muscles,  I  will  now 
draw  a  few  practical  inferences.  And  first,  we  see,  in  relation  to 
this  part  of  the  system,  the  same  law  as  in  other  parts,  which  is  the 
necessity  of  exercising  them,  in  order  to  secure  their  healthy  tone 
and  use  ;  if  this  be  omitted  they  become  enfeebled  and  incapable 
of  exciting  that  force  for  which  they  are  naturally  designed. 
For  instance,  let  a  person  cease  to  labor  for  a  period,  and  how  soon 
does  his  strength  decline,  and  he  is  rendered  incapable  of  lifting 
much  weight  or  performing  much  manual  labor.  His  muscular 
powers  are  impaired  and  he  can  exert  but  very  little  strength  ; 
nor  can  he  continue  that  strength  but  a  very  short  time.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  person  is  feeble,  yet  begins  to  use  one  or  more  of 
his  muscles  moderately  and  perseveringly,  they  become  more  and 
more  vigorous,  till  ultimately  a  prodigious  power  is  acquired.  To 
illustrate  this,  I  will  mention  but  a  single  fact.  A  relative  of  mine, 
quite  feeble  before  he  began  to  labor,  took  hold  of  a  lever  and 
turned  a  screw  with  facility,  which  I  could  not'  even  move.  I  had 
not  exercised  my  muscular  power  for  years,  or  scarcely  at  all,  while 


82  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY 

he  was  in  the  daily  habit  of  it.  The  inference  then  is  plain,  that 
moderate,  but  regular,  periodical  exercise  of  our  muscles  is  requisite 
to  secure  their  health  and  use. 

Mr.  Fowler,  in  his  work  on  Physiology,  has  some  pertinent  and 
practical  remarks  on  this  subject.  He  says — "  Those  who  will  eat 
more  than  labor,  must  suffer.  This  law  cannot  be  broken  with  im- 
punity. In  fact,  the  broken  constitutions  of  most  of  those  who  go 
from  the  farm  and  the  workshop  to  college,  or  some  sedentary  occu- 
pation, are  caused  mainly  by  violating  this  law  of  proportion. 
They  continue  to  eat  as  before,  yet  do  not  work  off  that  food,  and 
hence  the  head-aches,  ennui,  debility,  nervousness,  dyspepsia,  and 
kindred  diseases  of  our  literary  and  sedentary  classes.  Study  does 
not  make  them  invalids,  but  is  actually  promotive  of  health  and 
longevity.  They  are  enfeebled  by  overtaxing  their  stomachs  while 
they  starve  their  muscles  for  want  of  action. 

"  Take  that  city  belle,  rendered  delicate,  nervous,  sickly,  miserable, 
by  excessive  nervous  and  cerebral  derangement  consequent  on  novel 
reading,  parties,  amusements,  and  all  the  excitement  of  fashionable 
city  life.  Medicines  can  never  cure  her,  but  work  cam  Her  malady 
consists  in  a  predominance  of  nerve  over  muscle,  and  her  remedy 
in  restoring  the  balance  between  them.  She  is  doomed  either  to 
wear  out  a  miserable  existence,  or  else  to  EXERCISE  HER  MUSCLES  ; 
nor  can  salvation  come  from  any  other  source.  And  one  of  the 
great  reasons  why  journeyings,  visits  to  springs,  voyages,  and  the 
like,  often  effect  such  astonishing  cures,  is  that  they  relieve  the 
nervous  system,  and  at  the  same  time  increase  muscular  and  vital 
action.  The  same  exercise  taken  at  home  will  cure  them  quite  as 
speedily  and  effectually  by  the  same  means — a  restoration  of  pro- 
portion between  their  functions.  Nine  in  every  ten  of  the  invalids 
of  our  land  are  undoubtedly  rendered  feeble  by  this  one  cause,  and 
can  be  cured  by  labor.  How  many  thousands,  so  weakly  and  sickly 
that  they  begin  to  despair  of  life,  finally  give  up  their  business  and 
move  upon  a  farm,  and  soon  find  themselves  well.  Exercise  has 
often  cured  those  who  have  been  bedridden  many  years,  as  seen  in 
the  following : 

"  A  physician  of  some  repute  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  was  called  thirty 
miles  in  great  haste,  to  see  a  sick  woman,  whose  case  had  thus  far 
baffled  all  medical  treatment,  and  was  regarded  by  all  her  friends  as 
hopeless.  All  they  expected  was  merely  to  mitigate  a  disease  of 
long  standing:  recovery  being  considered  out  of  the  question. 
The  doctor  came,  saw  that  she  was  very  nervous,  and  had  been 


THE    MUSCLES.  83 

dosed  almost  to  death,  and  told  her  that  if  she  would  follow  his 
directions  implicitly,  he  could  cure  her ;  for  he  had  one  kind  of 
medicine  of  great  power,  but  which  was  useful  only  in  cases  ex- 
actly like  hers,  in  which  it  was  an  infallible  cure.  After  telling 
her  how  often  she  must  take  it,  he  added,  that  she  must  get  up  and 
WALK  ACROSS  THE  ROOM  the  second  day,  and  RIDE  OUT  the  third. 
"  Oh,  that  she  could  never  do,  for  she  had  not  been  off  her  bed  in 
many  years,  and  was  so  very  weak,"  etc.,  etc.  "  Oh,  but,"  said 
the  doctor,  "  this  medicine  will  give  you  much  strength  that  you 
will  be  able  to  do  so,  and  it  will  prevent  any  injurious  consequences 
arising  therefrom.  And,  besides,"  he  added,  "  the  medicine  will 
not  operate,  unless  you  stir  about  some.  Do  just  as  I  tell  you,  and 
you  will  be  off  your  bed  in  ten  days."  She  sent  an  express  thirty 
miles,  the  medicine  being  so  rare  that  he  did  not  take  it  with  him, 
after  his  bread  pills,  rolled  in  aloes,  to  make  them  taste  like  medi- 
cine, and  took  them  and  the  EXERCISE  as  prescribed,  and  the  third 
day  she  actually  got  into  a  carriage,  and  in  ten  days  was  able  to 
leave  her  bed,  and  soon  after  was  able  to  work,  and  yet  lives  to  be 
a  blessing  to  her  family,  and  to  pour  upon  the  doctor  a  literal  flood 
of  gratitude  for  performing  so  wonderful  a  cure — a  cure  which  none 
of  the  doctors  had  been  able  to  effect,  and  which  nothing  but  re- 
storing the  lost  proportion  between  her  nerves  and  muscles  could 
have  effected.  Nor  do  I  hesitate  to  affirm,  as  my  deliberate  con- 
viction, that  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  invalids,  especially  females, 
of  our  land,  are  rendered  so  mainly  by  excessive  nervous  and  de- 
ficient muscular  and  vital  action,  and  can  be  cured  by  banishing 
care,  and  exercising  in  the  open  air. 

"THE  AMOUNT  OF  EXERCISE  REQUIRED. 

"  From  four  to  six  hours  of  vigorous  muscular  exercise  is  the  least 
compatible  with  first-rate  health.  Excellent  constitutions  may  en- 
dure close  confinement  for  years,  yet  must  run  down  continually, 
and  finally  break.  A  lower  degree  of  health  may  be  preserved  on 
less  exercise,  but  as  the  order  of  nature  is  to  spend  from  six  to  ten 
hours  daily  in  the  open  air,  so  the  perfection  of  health  requires  a 
great  amount  of  muscular  action,  and  the  more,  generally  speaking, 
the  better,  provided  it  is  of  the  right  kind.  My  own  convictions 
are,  that  about  four  hours  brisk  labor  per  day  will  suffice  for  exer- 
cise, which  amount,  well  expended  by  all — rich  and  poor — will 
just  about  supply  the  human  family  with  the  comforts,  if  not  also 
the  luxuries  of  life,  artificial  wants  and  extravagances  of  course 


84  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

excepted.  How  admirable  this  adaptation  of  the  amount  of  labor 
requisite  for  health  to  that  required  to  provide  man  with  the  neces- 
ries  of  life. 

u  In  the  light  of  this  required  amount  of  exercise,  what  shall  we 
say  of  those  merchants,  clerks,  lawyers,  students,  and  the  sedentary 
classes  generally,  who  confine  themselves  to  their  offices,  desks, 
and  books,  from  morning  till  night,  year  in  and  year  out,  scarcely 
going  out  of  doors,  except  to  and  from  their  business,  and  then 
TAKING  AN  OMNIBUS  !  If  these  principles  of  exercise  were  put  in 
practice,  very  few  city  conveyances  would  be  required  or  patronized. 
One  would  think  that  our  sedentaries,  starved  almost  to  death  for 
exercise,  would  embrace  every  opportunity  to  take  it,  walking  at 
least  to  and  from  their  business,  sawing  their  own  wood,  and  the 
like.  Yet  fashion  requires  that  they  hire  horses  to  do  the  former, 
and  servants  to  do  the  latter.  Such  fashions  I  despise,  practically 
and  theoretically." 

While  on  the  one  hand  very  many  persons  suffer  from  want  of 
sufficient  exercise,  we  believe  that  an  equal  number  suffer  from  the 
opposite  cause,  namely,  excessive  labor,  as  farmers  and  mechanics. 
The  country  as  well  as  the  city  give  many  melancholy  instances  of 
persons  who  have  broken  down  their  systems  from  over  exertion ; 
lifting,  straining,  and  long-continued  exertion,  arising  either  from 
necessity  or  an  inordinate  desire  to  accumulate  money.  This  prac- 
tice is  much  worse  than  indolence.  Look  at  poor  girls  in  cities, 
who  toil  incessantly  for  ten  or  fifteen  hours  during  the  day,  in  fac- 
tories or  other  places,  perhaps  .in  a  sitting  position,  constantly  at 
work  in  a  close  atmosphere.  Many  children  and  youth  also  are 
compelled  to  labor  much  more  than  their  strength  permits,  which 
often  '  entails  disease  upon  them.  Hence  a  due  medium  must  be 
observed  to  ensure  health.  When  any  muscle  of  the  system  be- 
comes weak  from  any  cause  in  addition  to  proper  exercise,  friction 
or  rubbing  the  part  will  be  found  useful.  Also  a  douche  or  stream 
of  cold  water,  followed  by  rubbing  with  a  coarse  towel. 

There  are  hundreds  of  worthy  but  indigent  girls  who  are  com- 
pelled to  labor  far  beyond  their  strength  to  obtain  a  bare  subsistence^ 
while  there  are  thousands  who  triumph  in  the  possession  of  their 
riches,  and  live  in  luxury  and  pleasure.  How  can  such  men  recon- 
cile this  with  their  consciences,  if  they  have  any,  or  if  they  are 
not  "  seared  "  with  a  hot  iron  ?  There  is  one  miserable  old  miser 
in  this  city,  Astor,  now  about  eighty  years  of  age,  worth  at  least 
ten  millions,  who,  if  the  iceberg  could  be  taken  from  his  heart, 


FIG.  7. 


1  1  Hemispheres  of  the  Brain,  Cerebrum.  2  2  Hemispheres  of  the  Cerebellum  or 
little  biain.  333  Spinal  cord  or  marrow,  continuous  with  the  brain,  and  covered  with 
pia  mater.  The  spinal  nerves  proceeding  from  it  on  each  side. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  85 

might  render  comfortable  all  the  poor  in  the  United  States  by  pur- 
chasing farms  for  their  use.  Strange  it  is,  and  it  shows  the  per- 
version of  our  best  feelings,  that  almost  everybody  worships  this 
wretched  old  man,  not  for  his  good  traits,  but  for  his  money  ! ! 

Well  might  the  Apostle  say,  "  Go  to,  ye  rich  men,  weep  and  howl 
for  the  miseries  that  shall  come  upon  you."  This  state  of  things 
here,  and  more  especially  in  Europe,  fulfils  the  prediction  of  Pol- 
lock in  his  Course  of  Time,  where  he  says, 

"  Starving  want  in  time  of  wealth." 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE     NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

WE  have  now  to  enter  on  the  consideration  of  those  parts  that 
essentially  distinguish  an  animal  from  a  vegetable,  and  the  organs 
of  the  animal  from  those  belonging  to  the  organic  life  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  we  have  to  speak  of  the  parts  that  give  us  the  power  of 
voluntary  motion,  and  which  enable  us  to  feel  and  to  think. 

In  all  but  the  most  simple  animals,  it  is  quite  certain  that  sensa- 
tion and  voluntary  motion  depend  on  the  nervous  system.  The 
nervous  system  of  man  consists  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow, 
and  the  nerves.  As  these  are  all  composed  of  nearly  the  same  kind 
of  substance,  we  may  view  the  spinal  marrow  and  brain  as  nervous 
matter  collected  into  masses,  and  the  nerves  as  the  same  matter  dif- 
fused over  every  part  of  the  body.-  The  brain,  as  has  already  been 
mentioned,  is  contained  in  and  protected  by  the  cranium  or  skull. 
It  is  also  enclosed  in  three  layers  of  fine  membrane,  the  outermost 
of  which  (dura  mater)  is  strong  and  tough,  and  adheres  to  the  skull 
at  different  points ;  the  middle  layer  (arachnoid)  is  so  fine  as 
scarcely  to  be  visible  ;  and  the  innermost  one  (pia  mater)  not  only 
envelopes  the  brain,  but  also  penetrates  into  certain  parts  in  its 
interior.  The  spinal  marrow  has  similar  coverings,  and  is  con- 
tained in  the  canal  formed  by  the  rings  of  the  united  vertebrae. 
The  nerves  are  cords,  attached  to  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow, 
which  are  composed  of  brainy  matter  enclosed  in  numerous  minute 


86 


ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY- 


sheaths,  bound  together  by  a  strong  covering  (neurilema)  as  seen  in 
the  following  figure. 


When  we  examine  the  outer  surface  of  the  brain,*  we  observe  it 
folded  or  convoluted,  as  seen  in  Fig.  32,  a,  a,  a  ;  and  when  it  is  cut 

*  The  functions  of  the  different  nerves,  which  will  be  immediately  adverted  to,  may 
be  made  plain  by  having  a  large  drawing  so  colored  as  to  distinguish  each  kind. 
The  following  may  be  placed  beneath  the  drawing : — 

NERVES  OF  SENSATION  (colored  red).  (Fig.  32.)  No.  1,  olfactory— No.  2,  optic- 
No.  5,  5'  branches  of  the  fifth  nerve — 7'  auditory  nerve. 

NERVES  OF  MOTION  (colored  blue).  Nos.  3,  4,  6,  goto  the  muscles  of  the  eye— No • 
7  (portio  dura)  goes  to  the  sides  of  the  head  and  face — 8",  the  spinal  accessory  nerve, 
goes  to  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder— 9,  goes  to  the  muscles  of  the  tongue. 

NERVES  BOTH  OF  SENSATON  AND  MOTION,  OR  MIXED  NERVES  (colored  brown) 
5",  the  lowest  branch  of  the  5th  nerve  (the  brown  color  to  commence  where  the  upper 
branch  of  7  crosses  it — 10,  11,  12  and  all  below  this. 

DOUBTFUL  NERVES  colored  (black).    8,  the  glossopharyngeal— 8',  the  par  vagum. 


FIG.  8.  VIEW  OF  THE  TOP  AND  CONVOLUTIONS  OF  THE  BRAIN. 
A         A 


B  B 

A  A  Front  part  of  the  Brain.    A  A  B  B  Right  and  left  Hemisphere. 

Fro.  32.  THE  NERVES  OF  THE  BRAIN. 


a  a,  a  Convolutions  of  the  Brain,  b  Cerebellum,  and  arbor  vilee,  or  tree  of  life,  c  Me- 
dulla Oblongata.  d  Upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  e  Eye.  /Lateral  ventricle,  o  Cor- 
pus Callosum.  n  Pineal  Gland.  5  Gtuadrigemmal  bodies.  1  Olfactory  nerve.  2  Optic- 
nerve.  3,  4,  5,  6,  Third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  nerves.  5',  5",  Branches  of  the  fifth 
nerve.  7,  Portio  Dura  of  the  seventh  nerve.  7','  Auditory  nerve.  8,  Glosso-pharyngeal 
nerve.  8',  Par  Vagum.  8",  Spinal  accessory  nerve.  9,  Hypoglossal  nerve.  10,  Rub- 
Occipital  nerve.  11,  12,  First  and  second  cervical  nerves. 


FIG.    17. 


A  perpendicular  section  of  the  brain,  showing  the  grey  and  white  substances.  Fibres 
of  the  brain,  which  originate  in  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  ultimately  expand  into  the 
convolutions  of  the  brain. 


FIG.    18. 


Section  of  the  Brain.    The  Student  will  study  the  references. 


THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


* 

87 


into,  we  find  it  composed,  1st,  of  a  grey  pulpy  substance,  mostly 
placed  externally,  and,  2dly,  of  a  similar  white  substance,  placed 
internally.  The  same  materials  exist  in  the  spinal  marrow,  but  the 
white  matter  is  external,  while  the  grey  is  internal.  What  is  com- 
monly called  the  brain,  is  divided  into  the  cerebrum  or  proper  brain 
(Figs.  32,  #,  and  33,  a),  and  the  cerebellum  or  lesser  brain  (Figs. 
32,  6,  and  33  6),  which  presents  in  its  interior  the  branched  appear- 
ance of  a  tree  (arbor  vitse),  as  may  be  observed  in  Fig.  32.  Both 
these  parts  are  divided  longitudinally  into  two  halves  or  hemi- 
spheres, and  also  transversely  into  lesser  parts  called  lobes. 

In  the  interior  of  the  brain  there  are  several  cavities  called  ven- 
tricles, two  of  which  are  of  considerable  size.     Into  these  cavities 


Fig.  33.    Base  of  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord.* 

*  View  of  the  base  of  the  brain,  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  marrow,  and  attached 
nerves,  a,  Cerebrum;  b,  cerebellum;  e,  spinal  marrow;  /,  medulla  oblongata.  1,  Ol- 
factory nerves ;  2,  optic  nerves ;  3,  4,  5,  6,  3d,  4th,  Wi,  and  6tk  nerves ;  7  portio  dura 
of  the  7fh  and  auditory  nerves  ;  8,  glossopharyngeal  nerves  and  pneumogastric  nerves ; 
9,  spinal  accessory  and  hypoglossal  nerves  ;  10,  suboccipital  nerves ;  m,  cervical  plexus 
of  nerves ;  g,  plexus  of  the  nerves  going  to  the  arms ;  I,  dorsal  nerves ;  n,  lumbar 
nerves ;  k,  plexus  of  nerves  going  to  the  lower  extremities. 


88  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

called  ventricles,  one  of  which  is  seen  in  Fig.  32,  /,  there  is  con- 
tinually poured  out  a  clear  fluid,  which  in  the  healthy  state,  is  im- 
mediately absorbed;  but  in  a  diseased  state,  this  sometimes 
accumulates  until  it  amounts  to  gallons,  forming  one  variety  of  the 
disease  called  hydrocephalus,  or  water  in  the  head. 

The  spinal  marrow  is  found  to  be  composed  of  six  columns,  as 
represented  in  the  Fig.  Two  are  anterior,  two  lateral,  and  two 
posterior.  These  columns,  again,  when  minutely  examined,  are 
found  to  consist  of  bundles  of  fibres,  that  can  be  traced  upwards 
into,  and  are  found  to  be  continuous  with,  similar  fibres  composing 
the  brain  and  cerebellum.  The  upper  portion  of  the  spinal  mar- 
row (Figs.  32,  c,  33,/),  which  receives  the  name  of  the  medulla 
oblongata,  is  composed,  1st,  of  two  parts  called  the  corpora  pyra- 
midalia,  which  appear  to  be  chiefly  continuous  with  the  anterior 
columns  of  the  spinal  cord  and  to  run  upwards  to  the  cerebrum ; 
2dly.  of  two  similar*  parts,  called  the  corpora  olivaria,  chiefly  con- 
tinuous with  the  lateral  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  likewise 
principally  running  up  the  cerebrum  ;  and,  3dly,  of  two  other  parts, 
called  corpora  restiformia,  behind  the  corpora  olivaria,  continuous 
with  the  posterior  spinal  columns,  and  chiefly  running  to  the  cere- 
bellum. The  two  lobes  of  the  cerebellum  are  also  connected  with 
each  other  by  a  part  called  the  bridge  of  Varolius. 

These  descriptions  are  necessary  to  make  intelligible  the  func- 
tions of  the  different  parts  of  the  nervous  system.  We  shall  now 
state  a  few  of  these.  When  the  spinal  marrow  is  divided  in  the 
loins,  sensation  and  all  power  of  voluntary  motion  are  immediately 
lost  in  the  lower  extremities  ;  when  the  spinal  cord  is  divided  above 
where  the  nerves  (Fig.  33,  g,)  come  off  to  the  arms,  the  latter,  and 
all  the  parts  below,  suffer  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  animal  can 
still  breathe ;  when  the  medulla  oblongata  (Fig.  33,/,)  is  divided 
or  injured,  respiration  immediately  ceases,  and  death  of  course  is 
instantaneous.  If,  again,  the  division  is  made  above  the  medulla 
oblongata,  and  below  the  bridge  of  Varolius,  respiration  continues, 
and  the  animal  may  live  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  Chossat,  a 
French  physiologist,  who  performed  some  experiments  of  the  latter 
kind  on  dogs,  thinks  they  die  from  an  inability  to  keep  up  their 
natural  temperature.  Tortoises,  however,  in  which  the  brain  has 
v  been  taken  out,  have  lived  for  four  or  six  months  afterwards.  The 
brain  of  a  young  puppy  was  removed,  and  it  not  only  continued  to 
breathe,  but  also  sucked,  when  applied  to  the  teat,  or  when  the 
finger,  moistened  with  sugar,  was  put  in  its  mouth.  There  have 


FIG.  16. 


B  B  Anterior  portion  of  the  brain.  C  C  Ganglions  of  the  cerebellum.  E  E  Corpus 
callosum.  A,  Third  ventricle,  a  a  Anterior  quadrigeminal  bodies,  c  c  Posterior  qua- 
drigeminal  bodies,  t  Connexion  of  posterior  quadrigeminal  bodies,  c  Connexion  of 
the  great  sympathetic,  nerve,  d  d  Division  of  the  striated  bodies  into  two  parts,  to  show 
the  passage  of  the  great  bundles  of  fibres,  b.  s  Pineal  gland  with  its  anterior  cords,  m 
Interior  of  fourth  ventricle,  n  n  Great  inferior  ganglions,  p  p  Great  superior  gan- 
glions, x  x  White  fibres  in  fourth  ventricle,  v  Posterior  commissure,  r  Middle  or. 
soft  commissure,  o  Anterior  commissure, 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  89 

also  been  many  cases  of  children  born  almost  wholly  without 
nervous  matter,  above  the  medulla  oblongata,  which  yet  have  lived 
and  grown  for  days,  or  even  for  several  months. 

The  parts  above  the  medulla  oblongata,  viz.,  the  cerebrum  and 
Cerebellum,  are  generally  considered  as  the  especial  seat  of  intellect 
and  moral  feeling.  Says  Haller,  "  Concerning  the  seat  of  the  soul, 
we  must  inquire  experimentally.  In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  in  the 
head,  and  not  in  the  spinal  marrow.  For  though  the  latter  be 
affected,  the  integrity  of  the  mind  remains  the  same.  Again,  it 
appears,  from  the  experiment  of  convulsions  arising  when  the  in- 
most parts  of  the  brain  are  irritated,  that  it  lies  not  in  the  cortex, 
but  in  the  medulla ;  and  not  improbably,  in  the  crura  of  the 
medulla,  the  corpora  striata,  thalami,  pons,  medulla  oblongata,  and 
cerebellum.  Finally,  by  another  not  absurd  conjecture,  it  lies 
at  the  origin  of  every  nerve,  so  that  the  concurrence  of  the  first 
origins  of  all  the  nerves,  make  up  the  sensorium  commune.  Are 
the  sensations  of  the  mind  represented  there,  and  do  the  voluntary 
and  necessary  motions  arise  in  that  place  1  This  seems  very  pro- 
bable. For  it  does  not  seem  possible,  that  the  origin  of  motion  can 
lie  below  that  of  the  nerve  ;  for  that  would  be  a  gratuitous  suppo- 
sition of  immobility  or  insensibility,  In  some  part  of  the  nerve, 
though  perfectly  similar  to  the  rest.  Nor  can  the  origin  of  motion 
be  placed  higher  in  the  arteries,  for  they  neither  have  feeling,  nor 
are  excited  to  voluntary  motion.  It  therefore  follows,  that  the  seat 
of  the  mind  must  be  where  the  nerves  first  begin. 

We  come  now  to  the  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
nerves  are  the  organs  of  the  sense  or  motion ;  which,  as  it  lies 
hid  in  the  ultimate  elementary  fabric  of  the  medullary  fibres,  seems 
to  be  placed  above  the  reach  both  of  our  senses  and  reason ;  but 
we  shall  endeavor  to  make  as  great  an  approximation  to  the  truth 
as  possible,  by  experiments.  First,  it  is  demonstrated,  that  sensa- 
tion does  not  come  through  the  membranes  from  the  sentient 
organ  to  the  brain,  and  that  motion  is  not  transmitted  through  the 
coverings  from  the  brain  into  the  muscle.  For  the  brain  itself, 
deeper  than  these  membranes,  receives  the  impressions  of  sense, 
and  when  injured  throws  the  muscles  into  convulsions.  Moreover, 
it  is  certain,  that  the  nerves  arise  from  the  medulla  of  the  brain ; 
the  truth  of  which  is  manifest  in  all  the  nerves  of  the  brain,  more 
especially  in  the  olfactory,  optic,  fourth  and  seventh  pair,  which 
continue  their  medullary  fabric  a  long  way  before  they  receive  the 
covering  of  the  pia  mater." 


90  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Upon  the  different  functions  supposed  to  be  performed  by  dif- 
ferent parts  of  these,  is  founded  the  modern  science  of  phrenology. 
They  are  thought  to  be  no  further  necessary  to  sensation  and 
voluntary  motion,  than  as  receptacles  to  treasure  up  the  one,  and 
an  organ  to  direct  the  other.  The  brain  itself  is  not  possessed  of 
sensibility,  for  when  the  skull  has  been  fractured,  and  the  brain  has 
protruded,  part  of  it  has  been  repeatedly  shaved  off,  without  occa- 
sioning the  least  pain,  and,  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  the  whole 
of  the  upper  nervous  mass  has  been  cut  away,  without  the  animal 
manifesting  any  uneasiness,  until  the  instrument  came  close  to  the 
medulla  oblongata.  Cases  of  disease  of  the  brain  have  been  re- 
corded which  lead  to  the  same  conclusion.  Dr.  Abercromby  men- 
tions having  seen  a  lady  who  died  suddenly  with  scarcely  a  single 
symptom,  and  who  was  so  well  the  evening  before  death  as  to  have 
been  at  a  dancing-party,  one  half  of  whose  brain  was  ascertained, 
after  death,  to  have  been  completely  destroyed. 

From  the  organization  of  the  brain  we  may  infer  that  it  is  a  gal- 
vanic battery,  and  that  all  the  phenomena  of  nervous  influence  is 
produced  by  its  action.  The  two  hemispheres  are  only  united 
together  at  one  point,  the  carpus  callosum,  and  the  nervous  fluid  or 
influence  crosses  this  in  opposite  directions,  as  is  proved  by  post 
mortem  examinations.  An  injury  on  one  side  of  the  head  has 
caused  a  paralysis  of  the  extremities  below,  on  the  opposite  side. 
Dr.  VERE,  of  this  city,  witnessed  this  fact,  and  so  have  others ; 
which  proves  that  one  hemisphere  controls  the  opposite  parts  of  the 
body  and  vice  versa.  Haller  thus  remarks,  page  182,  "  The 
nervous  fluid,  which  is  the  instrument  of  sense  and  motion,  must  be 
exceedingly  movable,  so  as  to  carry  the  impressions  of  sense,  or 
commands  of  the  will,  to  the  places  of  their  destination,  without 
any  imaginable  loss  of  time,  and  cannot  receive  the  cause  of  its 
motions  only  from  the  heart.  Moreover,  it  is  very  thin  and  invi- 
sible, and  destitute  of  all  taste  and  smell ;  yet  reparable  from  the 
aliments.  It  is  not  on  any  account  to  be  confounded  with  that 
visible,  viscid  liquor  exhaling  into  the  intervals  of  the  nervous 
chords." 

Electric  matter  is  the  most  powerful  and  best  calculated  to  excite 
motion  and  even  a  ligature  on  a  nerve,  although  it  takes  away 
sense  and  motion,  never  stops  an  electrical  current.  The  effect  of 
pressure  on  the  brain  is  surprising  and  demonstrates  its  functions. 
A  person  in  Paris  had  received  an  injury  of  the  brain  from  which 
he  had  recovered,  but  left  a  portion  of  it  bare.  For  a  trifle  he 


c-  H 

Sections  of  the  Brain.    The  Student  will  study  the  references. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  91 

would  permit  any  person  to  press  upon  the  exterior  of  this  organ, 
when  he  would  suddenly  fall  down,  as  in  a  fit ;  as  soon  as  the  pres- 
sure was  removed,  recovery  immediately  followed.  Whether  sen- 
sation as  well  as  motion  was  thus  suspended  is  not  stated. 

M.  Majendie  has  made  some  curious  discoveries  connected  with 
the  effects  of  lesion  of  the  parts  situated  above  the  medulla  ob- 
longata.  When  parts  situated  in  the  ventricles  (corpora  striata)  are 
cut,  the  animal  immediately  darts  forward  and  runs  with  rapidity. 
This  phenomenon,  he  says,  is  particularly  remarkable  in  young 
rabbits,  the  animal  appearing  to  be  impelled  forward  by  a  power 
within,  which  it  cannot  resist.  It  is  a  curious  fact  connected  with 
this  observation,  that  horses  are  subject  to  a  disease  that  produces 
similar  effects.  The  diseased  animal  easily  goes  forward,  and  will 
even  trot  or  gallop  quickly,  but  seems  incapable  of  going  back- 
wards, and  appears  to  have  difficulty  in  arresting  its  progressive 
motion.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  cerebellum  or  medulla  ob- 
longata  was  injured  in  a  certain  manner,  the  tendency  always  was 
to  move  backwards.  Some  pigeons  which  had  been  thus  injured 
constantly  moved  backwards  in  walking  for  more  than  a  month, 
and  even  flew  backwards  when  thrown  into  the  air.  Another  sin- 
gular movement  took  place  when  the  parts  leading  from  the  spinal 
cord  up  to  the  cerebellum  (crura  cerebelli)  were  cut.  When  the 
one  on  the  right  is  cut,  a  whirling  motion  takes  place  on  that  side, 
and  sometimes  with  such  rapidity  that  sixty  turns  are  made  in  a 
minute.  M.  Majendie  says  he  has  seen  this  continue  for  eight 
days,  without  stopping,  to  speak  properly,  for  a  single  instant. 
When  the  opposite  crus  cerebelli  is  cut,  rotation  takes  place  on  the 
opposite  side ;  and  when  both  are  cut,  motion  in  both  directions 
ceases.  Probably  some  disease  of  these  parts  existed  in  an  insane 
person  who  was  some  years  ago  confined  in  one  of  the  Edinburgh 
asylums,  and  who  incessantly  occupied  himself  in  turning  round  in 
one  direction.  He  might  be  stopped,  or  forced  to  turn  in  an  oppo- 
site direction,  but  when  left  to  himself,  immediately  turned  as 
before. 

We  are  indebted  to  Sir  Charles  Bell,  however,  for  perhaps  the 
most  brilliant  discovery  ever  made  connected  with  the  functions  of 
the  nervous  system.  We  refer  to  his  discovery  of  the  different 
parts  upon  which  motion  and  sensation  depend.  This  distinguished 
physiologist  was  led  to  his  investigations  partly  from  considering 
the  distribution  of  certain  nerves,  and  partly  from  cases  in  which  a 
person  wholly  loses  the  power  to  move  a  part  of  the  body,  and  yet 


92  ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

retains  perfect  sensation  in  it,  or  where  the  reverse  of  this  happens 
— that  is,  where  the  power  of  motion  remains  while  sensation  is 
gone.  Of  such  cases,  the  following  may  be  taken  as  an  example  : — 
Francisco  Caasario,  living  at  Rio  Janeiro,  fell  from  a  scaffold  twenty 
feet  high.  On  recovering  from  the  shock,  it  was  found  that  his  left 
side,  from  the  shoulder  downwards,  was  deprived  of  all  power  of 
motion,  but  that  sensation  remained  in  it ;  whereas,  on  the  right 
side,  his  powers  of  motion  were  perfect,  but  sensation  was  then  and 
afterwards  so  completely  gone,  that  a  lancet  might  be  thrust  deep 
into  the  flesh  without  giving  him  the  slightest  pain.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  the  neck  upwards,  motion  and  sensation  on  both  sides  were 
uninjured,  and  the  line  of  demarcation  was  so  exactly  drawn,  that 
it  might  be  defined  by  a  thread  surrounding;  the  neck. 

o  J  O 

Now,  of  such  cases  as  the  above,  Sir  Charles  Bell's  experiments 
afford  a  most  satisfactory  explanation ;  for  though  a  limb  is  de- 
prived both*  of  the  power  of  motion  and  sensation  by  dividing  the 
spinal  nerves  that  go  to  it,  Sir  Charles  Bell  showed,  that  by  tracing 
these  nerves  to  their  origin,  they  are  each  found  to  be  composed  of 
two  parts,  one  of  which  comes  from  the  anterior  column  of  the 
spinal  cord,  while  the  other  comes  from  the  posterior  column,  and, 
as  represented,  has  always  a  small  ganglion  or  swelling  on  it.  He 
further  showed,  that  if  the  anterior  root  be  cut,  the  power  of  motion 
in  the  part  supplied  by  the  nerve  is  extinguished,  as  is  also  sensa- 
tion, by  dividing  its  posterior  root.  In  his  experiments,  when  the 
posterior  or  sensitive  roots  of  the  nerve  in  a  newly  killed  animal 
were  irritated  with  a  sharp  instrument,  no  effect  was  produced ; 
but  when  the  anterior  or  motive  roots  were  irritated,  the  parts  of 
the  body  to  which  these  nerves  went,  were  thrown  into  convulsions. 
An  ass  was  killed,  and  immediately  the  motive  nerve  which  sup- 
plies the  muscles  of  the  jaws  was  irritated.  The  muscles  con- 
tracted strongly,  and  closed  the  jaw  with  a  snap  ;  but  when  the 
same  nerve  was  divided  in  a  living  animal,  the  jaw  fell  relaxed. 

These  explanations  will  render  intelligible  the  account  we  shall 
now  give  of  the  different  nerves  derived  from  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord.*  They  come  off  in  pairs,  as  represented  in  Fig.  33.  Figure 
32  shows,  as  already  mentioned,  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  brain 
and  medulla  oblongata.  No.  1  (in  both  Figures)  is  the  1st  or  olfac- 
tory nerve,  which  goes  to  the  nose,  and  gives  the  sense  of  smell ; 

*  The  derivation  of  the  nerves  from  the  brain  is  considered  only  apparent,  many 
physiologists  believing  that  they  can  be  traced  to  the  spinal  cord. 


N 


The  cerebellum,  medulla  oblongata,  and  pons  Varolii  removed,  the  brain  then  cut 
along  the  median  line  and  laid  open,  to  show  its  ventricles  and  their  fibrous  structure. 
M  M  The  anterior  part  of  the  brain.  N  N  Posterior  part  of  the  brain,  e  e  Vertical  sec- 
tions of  the  great  inferior  ganglions — color,  bluish  white,  c  c  The  black  substance  in 
the  centre  of  the  great  inferior  ganglions,  o  o  The  cords  of  the  mammary  bodies  which 
plunge  into  the  interior  of  the  great  inferior  ganglions,  t  Mammary  body  of  the  right 
side,  the  left  being  cut  away,  r  r  Optic  nerves,  n  n  Olfactory  nerves,  a  a  Great  su- 
perior ganglions— color,  reddish  grey. 


FIG. 


A— Front  part  of  the  right  hemisphere  of  the  brain.     B— Gieat  inferior  ganglion. 
C— Great  superior  ganglion. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


and  No.  2  (also  seen  in  both  Figures),  is  the  2d  or  optic  nerve,  that 
goes  to  the  eye,  and  gives  the  power  of  vision. 

No.  3  (seen  in  both  Figures)  is  a  nerve  that  goes  exclusively  to 
the  muscle  of  the  eye.  It  has  its  origin  from  the  anterior  column 
of  the  spinal  cord,  which  runs  up  to  the  cerebrum,  and  is,  therefore, 
only  a  nerve  of  motion. 

No.  4  (seen  in  both  Figures)  is  the  smallest  nerve  in  the  body, 
being,  in  man,  little  thicker  than  a  sewing  thread.  It  goes  to  a 
single  muscle  which  moves  the  eye  (trochleator) ;  it  is  a  nerve  of 
motion,  and  probably  has  an  origin  similar  to  the  last,  though  this 
has  not  been  distinctly  shown. 

No.  5  (seen  in  both  Figures,  but  best  in  Fig.  32)  is  a  most  exten- 
sive and  important  nerve.  It  is  the  highest  that  arises  by  double 
roots,  and  is,  as  shown  by  Sir  Charles  Bell,  both  a  motor  and  a 
sensitive  nerve.  Its  first  branch  (Fig.  32,  5),  which  goes  to  the  eye, 
eyebrows,  forehead,  &c.,  comes  only  from  the  posterior  or  sensitive 
root,  and  gives  to  the  parts  mentioned  the  sense  of  touch  or  com- 
mon sensation.  If  this  nerve  were  destroyed,  we  might  have  sensa- 
tions from  light,  but  we  could  have  no  feeling  when  anything  else 
came  in  contact  with  the  eye.  The  second  branch  (Fig.  32,  5'), 
like  the  first,  comes  from  the  posterior  root,  and  gives  sensibility  to 
the  upper  jaw,  palate,  upper  lip,  &c.  The  third  branch  (Fig.  32, 
5")  has  its  origin  from  both  the  motor  and  sensitive  roots,  and  hence 
gives  both  sensibility  and  the  power  of  motion.  It  goes  to  the 
muscles,  skin,  &c.,  connected  with  the  lower  jaw,  tongue,  and 
mouth.  The  sensitive  branches  of  the  5th  nerve  are  those  that  are 
so  painfully  affected  in  toothache  and  tic  doloureux. 

No.  6  (Figs.  32  and  33)  is  the  6th  nerve.  It  has  only  one  root 
from  the  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  is  hence  exclusively 
a  motor  nerve.  It  goes  to  a  single  muscle  of  the  eye. 

No.  7  (Figs.  32  and  33)  is  the  motor,  or  hard  portion,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called  (portio  dura),  of  the  7th  nerve.  It  is  extensively 
distributed  to  the  muscles  of  the  face  and  forehead.  When  it  is 
cut,  the  muscles  on  that  side  are  paralysed,  and  the  mouth,  as  for- 
merly noticed,  is  drawn  to  the  other  side. 

No.  7'  (Fig.  32)  is  called  the  soft  portion  of  the  7th  nerve.  It 
goes  to  the  internal  ear,  and  is  the  nerve  of  hearing. 

No.  8  (Figs.  32  and  33)  is  called  the  glossopharyngeal  nerve, 
from  being  distributed  to  the  root  of  the  tongue  and  pharynx.  The 
functions  of  this  nerve  are  at  present  the  subject  of  dispute. 

No.  8'  (Figs-.  32  and  33)  are  called  the  pneumogastric  nerves, 


94  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

from  being  distributed  principally  to  the  lungs  and  stomach.  These 
are  large  nerves  that  run  behind  the  carotid  arteries  in  the  neck. 
Although  they  have  been  very  frequently  experimented  on,  their 
functions  are  still  a  subject  of  dispute.  There  seems  no  doubt  that 
they  give  motor  branches  to  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  the  pharynx, 
the  oesophagus,  and  probable  also  to  the  lungs,  and  they  also  seem 
to  furnish  us  with  some  of  the  sensations  from  the  lungs.  When 
the  pneumogastric  nerves  are  cut  below  the  branches  to  the  wind- 
pipe, the  effect  is,  as  formerly  mentioned,  generally,  though  not 
uniformly,  to  suspend  the  process  of  digestion,  the  food  remaining 
in  the  stomach  nearly  unaltered.  It  was  to  these  nerves  that  Dr. 
Philip,  under  these  circumstances,  applied  galvanism,  and  found 
that  the  power  of  digestion  was  then  restored. 

No.  8"  (Fig.  32)  is  called  the  spinal  accessory,  and  is  considered 
to  be  a  motor  nerve.  It  is  distributed  to  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
and  shoulder.  This  is  called  by  some  anatomists  the  third  branch 
of  the  eighth  pair,  the  glossopharyngeal  and  pneumogastric  being 
considered  its  first  and  second  branches.  The  next  or  hypoglossal 
nerves,  in  this  way,  come  to  be  called  the  ninth  pair. 

No.  9  (Figs.  32  and  33)  is  a  nerve  of  motion,  called  the  hypo- 
glossal  from  going  to  the  muscles,  and  consequently  producing  the 
movements  of  the  tongue. 

No.  10  (Figs.  32  and  33)  is  called  the  suboccipital  nerve,  from 
coming  out  immediately  below  the  occiput  or  back  of  the  head.  It 
goes  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  &c.,  and  belongs  to  the  strictly  regu- 
lar nerves,  or  those  which  have  both  sensiferous  and  motor  roots. 
All  the  spinal  nerves  below  this,  as  seen  in  Figs.  32  and  33,  also 
have  sensitive  and  motor  roots.  They  become  interwoven  in  their 
course,  forming,  in  different  parts,  what  is  called  a  plexus.  The 
principal  of  these  are,  1st,  the  cervical  plexus  (Fig.  33,  ra),  which 
gives  off,  among  others,  two  important  nerves,  one  of  which  goes 
to  the  diaphragm,  and  is  called  the  phrenic  or  internal  respiratory 
nerve,  and  the  other,  from  being  also  concerned  in  respiration,  is 
called  by  Sir  Charles  Bell  the  external  respiratory  nerve,  g,  Fig. 
33,  is  called  the  brachial  plexus,  from  supplying  nerves  to  the  arm. 
Below  this  are  the  dorsal  nerves  (/),  the  lumbar  nerves  (TI),  and  the 
sacral  plexus  (&),  which  last  furnishes  the  large  nerves  that  go  to 
the  lower  extremity. 

It  is  evident  that  the  influence  of  the  will  is  confmetf  to  the 
nerves,  and  does  not  extend  to  the  arteries  or  other  solid  parts  of 
the  body. 


FIG.  19, 


B 


The  brain  proper  or  cerebrum  is  divided  by  anatomists  into  three  lobes.  A  A  Ante- 
rior, D  D  middle,  and  B  B  posterior  lobes.  A  B  A  B  are  the  right  and  left  hemispheres 
of  the  brain.  F  F  The  cerebellum,  e  The  pons  Varolii,  or  Tuber  Annulare.  /  The 
Medulla  Oblongata.  r  r  The  Corpora  Pyramidalia.  5  s  The  Corpora  olivaria.  1 1  The 
Corpora  restiformia.  1  First  pair,  or  olfactory  nerves.  2  Second  pair,  or  optic  nerves. 
3  Third  pair  nerves,  or  motores  oculorum.  4  Fourth  pair  nerves,  or  trochleares.  5  Fifth 
pair.  6  Sixth  pair.  7  Portio  dura  of  the  seventh  pair.  8  Portio  Mollis  of  the  seventh 
pair.  9  Glosso-pharyngeal  nerves.  10  Par  vagum. 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


95 


View  of  the  brain  and  nerves. 

Besides  the  nerves  described  above,  there  is  a  most  extensive 
system  of  nerves  called  ganglionic  (from  small  ganglia  or  swellings 
with  which  they  are  connected),  that  are  principally  distributed  to 
the  lungs,  bowels,  and  other  viscera.  Their  functions  are  not  pre- 
cisely ascertained,  but  they  do  not  confer  either  sensibility  or  the 
power  of  voluntary  motion.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  be 
chiefly  connected  with  secretion,  and,  from  their  connexions  with 
the  spinal  nerves,  to  form  a  bond  of  union  between  the  rest  of  the 
nervous  system. 

By  whatever  parts  effected,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  union 
or  sympathy  of  the  different  organs  does  exist.  The  effects,  in 
paralysing  the  heart's  action,  of  a  blow  on  the  region  of  the  stomach, 
of  extensive  burns,  &c.,  have  already  been  stated.  If  the  brain  of 
a  rabbit  be  merely  removed,  the  heart  may  beat  for  an  hour  or  more 
afterwards,  but  suddenly  crushing  the  brain  instantly  stops  its 


96  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

action.  Tickling  of  the  soles  of  the  feet,  causing  the  action  of  the 
diaphragm  that  takes  place  in  laughing,  tickling  of  the  throat  caus- 
ing vomiting,  &c.,  are  examples  of  a  similar  connexion. 

A  subject  of  the  utmost  interest  to  the  physiologist  is  presented 
in  the  modifications  which  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  nervous 
system  undergo  in  the  different  classes  of  animals.  In  none  of  the 
lowest  tribes  of  the  Radiata  have  any  traces  of  a  nervous  system 
been  discovered,  though  these  creatures  seem  to  possess  both  feel- 
ing and  voluntary  powers.  In  the  long  round  worm  which  infests 
the  human  intestines,  a  slender  nervous  filament  passes  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  belly,  and  is  divided  by  the  gullet  into  two 
branches.  The  nervous  filaments  in  the  star-fish  encircle  the 
mouth,  and  radiate  to  its  five  divisions.  In  the  Articulata  the 
nervous  cords  are  interrupted  by  knots  or  ganglia,  which,  it  is  proba- 
ble, perform  functions  analogous  to  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  of 
the  Vertebrata.  The  nervous  system  of  the  Mollusca  contrasts  with 
that  of  the  Articulata,  in  assuming  more  of  a  circular  form.  In 
that  of  the  sepia,  there  is  a  large  ganglion,  which  is  enclosed  in 
something  like  a  rudimentary  cranium,  and  probably  performs  func- 
tions analogous  to  those  of  the  brain.  The  parts  from  which  the 
optic  nerves  are  derived  in  this  animal,  are  even  larger  than  the  part 
representing  the  brain. 

In  the  vertebrated  division,  a  brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  always 
present,  but  the  size  of  the  parts  composing  the  brain  especially,  is 
relatively  so  much  altered,  as  almost  to  prevent  them  from  being 
recognized.  Among  animals  of  this  division,  fishes  have  the  most 
simple  nervous  system.  From  these  there  is  a  regular  gradation  in 
complexity  of  organization  up  to  man,  in  whom  all  the  parts  be- 
longing to  the  other  classes  are  found,  besides  some  that  are  pecu- 
liar to  himself. 

The  nervous  system  of  man  is  particularly  distinguished  by  the 
ample  development  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  The  human  cere- 
brum extends  so  far  backwards  as  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  cere- 
bellum ;  the  ourang-outang's  cerebrum  allows  the  cerebellum  to  be 
seen  behind  it,  and  the  otter's  and  sheep's  do  so  still  more  de- 
cidedly. In  the  marmot,  and  other  Rodentia,  not  only  the  cere- 
bellum, but  also  the  parts  from  which  the  optic  nerves  arise  (optic 
tubercles,  also  called  corpora  quadrigemina)  are  partially  exposed^ 
and  the  convolutions  on  the  surface  of  the  brain  have  disappeared. 
In  birds  the  exposure  is  still  greater,  and  becomes  complete  in  rep- 
tiles and  in  fishes. 


FIG.  14. 


The  right  hemisphere  of  the  brain  cut  through  the  corpus  callosum,  pons  Varolii,  me- 
dulla oblongata,  and  cerebellum.  M  M  Convolutions,  flat — color,  reddish  grey.  A,  Me- 
dulla oblongata  cut  through  the  median  line.  Color,  outer  portion  bluish  white — inner 
portion,  reddish  grey,  a  Pyramidal  body.  B  Pons  Varolii,  or  tuber  annulare.  Color, 
white  outside — inside,  reddish  grey,  c  Tubercula  quadrigemina.  D,  Crus  cerebri.  E 
The  great  inferior  ganglion — posterior  striated  body  (thalamus) — color,  bluish  white. 
F  The  great  superior  ganglion — anterior  striated  body — color,  reddish  grey.  G  Annular 
ganglion.  H  Corpus  callosum — color,  bluish  white.  K  Fissura  Silvii.  L  the  cerebel- 
lum, e  The  arbor  vitae— color,  white,  in  the  reddish  grey  ground  of  the  incised  cerebel- 
lum. T  The  tentorium,  separating  the  cerebellum  from  the  brain,  n  Locus  niger. 


FIG.  15. 


Represents  the  right  hemisphere  of  the  brain,  in  which  the  convolutions  are  cut  away 
to  the  depth  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  show  the  fibres  radiating  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  outer  surface  of  the  great  inferior  ganglion  into  the  convolutions. 

The  white  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  figure  represents  the  outer  surface  of  the  great  in- 
ferior ganglion  over  which  the  fibres  are  drawn  with  great  accuracy  from  the  original. 

c  Internal  structure  of  the  convolutions,  e  Fibres  of  the  convolutions  agglutinated  by 
a  very  delicate  neurilema. 


THE     NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  97 

It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  the  brain  of  man  was  not  only 
relatively,  but  absolutely,  larger  than  that  of  any  other  animal ; 
but  it  is  now  known  that  the  amount  of  nervous  matter  in  the 
elephant's  brain,  and  in  some  others,  is  greater.  Relatively,  how- 
ever, to  the  size  of  their  bodies,  the  comparison  is  more  in  our 
favor.  For  example  :  in  man,  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  the  brain 
to  that  of  the  whole  body  is  about  one  to  28,  while  in  the  dog  it 
averages  about  1  to  160,  in  the  horse  1  to  400,  and  in  the  elephant 
1  to  500.  But  again,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  curious  to  remark, 
that  the  brain  of  the  canary  bird,  compared  with  its  body,  is  as  high 
as  1  to  14 ;  and  there  is  a  species  of  monkey  in  which  the  propor- 
tion is  even  1  to  11.  For  various  reasons,  however,  comparisons  of 
this  kind  are  not  considered  as  furnishing  a  fair  estimate.  Another 
method  has  been  proposed  by  Soemmering,  an  eminent  physio- 
logist, to  which  hitherto  few  if  any  exceptions  have  been  found, 
and  which  depends  on  the  ratio  which  the  size  of  the  brain  holds  to 
the  aggregate  bulk  of  the  nerves  that  proceed  from  it.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  this  method,  the  example  of  the  horse  may  be  cited. 
The  absolute  size  of  the  Brain  of  the  horse  is  only  about  half  that 
of  the  human  brain,  while  the  mass  of  the  nerves  of  the  horse,  at 
their  origin,  is  no  less  than  ten  times  greater  than  that  of  man. 

By  adopting  this  principle,  we  are  able,  in  most  instances  at  least, 
to  trace  a  correspondence  between  the  cerebral  development  and 
the  amount  of  intelligence,  and  we  pass  by  easy  gradations,  from 
one  class  of  animals  to  another  upwards  to  man,  between  whom  and 
all  the  rest  there  exists  a  great  gap.  Between  the  two  extremes 
the  difference  is  very  striking.  To  show  this,  we  weighed  a  cod, 
and  found  it  to  be  27  pounds.  We  weighed  its  brain  (including  all 
the  nervous  matter  above  the  medulla  oblongata),  and  found  it  to 
be  44  grains.  As  a  comparison  we  weighed  a  child,  which  died 
four  days  after  birth,  and  found  it  to  be  seven  pounds.  Its  brain 
was  also  weighed,  and  was  found  to  be  no  less  than  6912  grains. 
A  similar  comparison  may  be  made  with  the  adult  brain.  Mr. 
Scoresby  found  the  brain  of  a  young  whale  (whose  body  weighed 
11,200  pounds)  to  be  3  pounds  12  ounces.  The  body  of  Byron  or 
Cuvier  would  probably  not  weigh  more  than  200  pounds,  and  yet 
the  brain  of  the  former  is  said  to  have  weighed  4J  pounds,  while 
Cuvier's  brain  weighed  4  pounds  13J  ounces* — the  heaviest  we 
believe  upon  record. 

From  the  great  mass  of  nervous  matter  which  man's  brain  con- 

*  Brigham  on  the  Influence  of  Mental  Cultivation  on  the  Brain. 

7 


98  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

tains,  it  is  necessarily  a  very  active  organ.  It  is  to  it,  as  the  organ 
of  the  mind,  that  we  owe  our  pre-eminence  as  moral  beings,  as 
well  as  all  that  has  been  accomplished  in  the  arts,  in  science,  and  in 
literature.  While  we  cannot  but  be  gratified  for  what  has  thus 
been  done,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  too  great  activity  of  this 
organ  often  leads  to  melancholy  consequences.  A  large  proportion 
of  those  who  devote  themselves  to  intellectual  occupations,  irre- 
parably injure  their  health.  This  arises  from  two  causes.  1st, 
Because  these  persons  often  do  not  mingle  a  due  amount  of  bodily 
exercise  with  their  studies.  Many  young  students,  especially, 
fall  a  sacrifice  to  this  error.  Where  proper  out-of-door  exercise  is 
regularly  taken,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  moderate  study  will, 
in  most  instances,  be  found  the  reverse  of  hurtful.  But  2dly,  by  far 
the  most  injurious  consequences  follow  from  such  engagements  or 
studies  as  continually  excite,  and  agitate,  and  harass  the  mind,  and 
consequently  the  brain.  The  constitution  must  be  good,  indeed, 
in  which  such  a  course  does  not  give  rise  to  impaired  appetite, 
habitually  painful  digestion,  or  some  more  serious  disease.  The 
brain,  like  every  other  organ,  if  its  powers  are  continually  put  upon 
the  stretch,  almost  necessarily  becomes  itself  deranged,  or  deranges 
some  other  organ.* 

The  diseases  of  the  brain  are  too  numerous  to  allow  of  even  a 
reference  to  them  individually.  The  one  most  commonly  met  with 
in  practice,  is  perhaps  that  particular  species  of  inflammation  which 
gives  rise  to  hydrocephalus,  or  water  of  the  head.  This  fatal 
disease  occurs  most  commonly  in  childhood,  and  the  physician  can 
usually  trace  it  to  the  variety  of  constitution  termed  the  scrofulous. 
The  tendency  to  it  is  generally  derived  from  parents ;  and  hence, 
when  it  has  once  occurred  or  is  suspected  in  a  "family,  very  gr£at 
attention  to  the  general  health  of  the  other  members  of  it  is  called 
for.  Another  disease  of  the  brain,  unfortunately  of  frequent  occur- 

*  "  Every  physician,''  says  a  writer,  l:  has  melancholy  experience  of  such  cases. 
We  lately  met  with  a  painful  one,  which  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example.  A  young 
gentleman,  a  student  of  divinity,  of  not  a  very  strong  constitution  originally,  met  with 
a  favorable  opening  for  commencing  a  school  in  April,  1837.  Anxious  for  the  success 
of  his  school,  as  well  as  for  the  progress  of  his  studies,  he  made  the  harassing  duties 
of  the  former  the  only  relaxation  from  the  latter.  The  consequence  was,  as  might  have 
been  naturally  anticipated,  that  his  health  sank  under  it,  and  he  was  obliged  to  give  up 
his  school  in  April,  1838.  His  health  continued  in  the  most  precarious  state  until 
June:  1838,  when  he  was  seized  with  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain, 
which  proved  fatal.  After  death,  not  only  the  brain,  but  all  of  the  other  important 
organs,  were  found  in  a  highly  diseased  state." 


FIG.  10.  SIDE  VIEW  AND  EXTERIOR  OF  THE  BRAIN,  CEREBELLUM,  CONVO- 
LUTIONS, AND  MEDULLA  OBLONGATA. 


C— Cerebrum.     D— Cerebellum.    E— Melulla  Oblon^ata. 
FIG.  11. 


A  horizontal  section  of  the  brain  at  a  depth  of  about  an  inch  from  its  base,  or  under 
surface,  e  e  Convolutions  or  cortical  part  of  the  Brain — color,  reddish  grey,  u,  Fourth 
ventricle,  v  Posterior  commissure— ctlor/white.  s  Third  ventricle,  or  separation  be- 
tween the  great  ganglions,  d  d  Great  inferior  ganglions — color,  bluish  white,  x  Mid- 
dle commissure,  n  Anterior  commissure,  p  p  Great  superior  ganglions — striated — 
color,  reddish  grey,  t  Anterior  opening  into  the  lateral  ventricles. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  99 

rence,  is  called  delirium  tremens.  It  arises  from  the  continued 
abuse  of  ardent  spirits.  There  are  three  organs  especially  affected 
by  this  baneful  habit — the  brain,  the  liver,  and  the  kidneys.  The 
two  latter  slowly,  but  surely,  become  diseased,  and  their  diseases 
generally  prove  fatal.  Delirium  tremens,  however,  though  a  dan- 
gerous, is  not  usually  a  fatal  disease.  The  person  affected  is  in  a 
high  state  of  excitement,  thinks  he  is  surrounded  by  evil  spirits, 
imagines  all  his  friends  are  plotting  against  him,  and  a  thousand 
other  fancies.  The  mind,  in  certain  other  states  and  diseases,  is 
also  very  singularly  affected,  which  it  would  be  curious  to  refer  to, 
did  our  space  permit.  Dr.  Abercrombie's  work  on  the  intellectual 
powers,  the  works  of  phrenologists,  those  on  somnabulisnr  and 
animal  magnetism,  &c.,  contain  some  very  interesting  facts  on  this 
subject. 

[To  illustrate  this  section,  the  brain  of  a  sheep  may  be  exhibited,  which  can  easily 
be  done  by  sawing  through  the  skull  from  behind  the  eyes  down  to  the  opening  for  the 
spinal  marrow  (taking  care  not  to  saw  too  deep),  and  then  wrenching  it  off  with  a 
screw-driver  or  other  strong  lever.  The  membranes  covering  the  brain  will  be  observed. 
These  should  be  slit  open,  and  the  brain  lifted  up  anteriorly,  when  the  different  nerves, 
commencing  with  the  olfactory,  will  come  into  view,  and  must  be  cut  through,  and  the 
brain  taken  out  and  placed  in  spirits  for  a  few  hours  to  harden  it.  The  nerves,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  33,  the  ventricles  in  the  interior  of  the  brain,  and  the  other  parts  described 
here,  and  in  anatomical  works,  may  then  easily  be  seen.  A  cod's  or  haddock's  brain 
and  spinal  marrow  may  easily  be  shown,  by  cutting  with  a  strong  pair  of  scissors  the 
spinal  rings  and  the  skull. 

Besides  these,  if  wished,  the  progressive  development  of  the  brain  in  different  species 
may,  with  a  little  care  and  patience,  be  shown  in  the  fowl,  the  hare  or  rabbit,  the  adder 
or  frog,  &c. 

A  few  casts,  showing  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  human  brain,  that  of  the 
ourang-outang,  of  idiots,  &c.,  and  casts  cf  the  heads  of  the  Carib,  Negro,  European, 
&c.,  form  excellent  illustrations  of  this  section,  and  can  easily  be  obtained. 

Appropriate  figures  for  illustrating  this  section  will  be  found  in  Fletcher's  Rudiments 
of  Physiology,  Part  I.,  pages  47  and  48;  in  Lizars  colored  plates,  pages  64,  67,  68;  in 
Roget's  Bridgewater  Treatise,  vol.  ii.  pages  547,  550,  552,  &c.] 

Front  view  of  a  section  of  the  Spinal  Cord,  and  Spinal  Nerves 


A— Spinal  Cord.     B — Spinal  Nerve.    C — Motor  branch  of  Spinal  Nerve,     D — Ganglion  of 
posterior  branch  of  Spinal  Nerve. 


100 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


The  order  and  uses  of  the  ten  pair  of  nerves  are  thus  explained 

by  a  French  poet : — 

"  On  viewing  nature's  noble  plan  of  things, 
We  find  five  senses  mov'd  by  double  strings ; 
While  every  fibre  aids  the  lively  sense, 
Ordain'd  by  wisest  laws  of  Providence. 
The  first,  in  rank,  directs  oar  fragrant  smell ; 
The  second  gives  us  power  of  seeing  well ; 
The  third  commands  the  motions  of  our  sight, 
To  contemplate  with  ease  the  sacred  light ; 
The  fourth  to  secret  lovers  gives  the  law; 
The  fifth  keeps  time  in  moving  either  jaw; 
The  sixth,  by  turns,  pourtrays  our  pride  or  sight ; 
The  seventh  asserts  to  melody  a  right ; 
To  wake  the  soul  with  feelings  fit  for  kings  ; 
The  eighth  strong  nerve  employs  a  hundred  springs ; 
The  ninth  excites  the  call  for  daily  bread, 
The  tenth  sustains  with  grace  the  neck  and  head." 
A  front  view  of  the  Mudulla  Oblongata,  lateral  nerves,  Pons  Varolii,  and  fifth  pair  of  nerves 


M — Medulla  oblongata.  A — Pons  Varolii.  B — Corpus  Pyramidale.  C — Corpus  Olivary.  D — 
Spinal  accessory  nerve.  E — Par  Vagum.  F — Glosso-Pharyngeal  nerve.  G — Portio  Dura  of  the 
seventh.  H — Fourth  Nerve.  I  I — Anterior  column  of  the  Spinal  Cord,  a — Ganglionic  branch  of 
the  fifth  nerve,  c— Ganglion,  d— Motor  branch  of  the  fifth  nerve. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 
View  of  the  ganglions,  brain,  and  spinal  nerves,  size,  &c. 


101 


a 


a 


a  a,  Great  superior  ganglions— color,  redish  grey.  6  6,  Great  inferior  ganglions— color,  bluish 
white,  e  e,  Cerebellar  ganglions — color,  bluish  white,  i  i,  Olivary  ganglions — color  bluish  white. 
h  h  h,  Ganglions  of  spinal  nerves,  n  n,  Pyramidal  bodies — color,  bluish  white,  o  o,  Restiforra 
bodies — color,  bluish  white,  d  d,  Posterior  quadrigeminal  bodies — color,  bluish  white,  cc,  Ante- 
rior quadrigeminal  bodies— color,  bluish  white,  s.  Pineal  gland— color,  redish  grey.  /Medulla 
oblongata — color,  bluish  white.  «,  Spinal  cord — color,  bluish  white,  v,  Middle  cineriterous  por- 
tion of  spinal  cord — color,  redish  grey. 


102 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  cerebellum,  and  its  connexion  with  the  Brain,  or  Cerebrum. 


A  A,  The  cerebellum.  B,  Processus  vermiculares — organ  of  motion,  a  a,  The  posterior  cor- 
pora quadrigemina.  c  c,  The  great  anterior  corpora  quadrigemina.  d  d,  The  great  inferior  gang- 
lions. «,  Pineal  gland,  m  m,  Posterior  part  of  the  great  superior  ganglions. 

NATURE,    CAUSES,    AND    TREATMENT    OF    NERVOUS    DISEASES. 

Having  described  the  nerves,  I  will  add  a  few  remarks  on  the 
diseases  to  which  they  are  liable,  and  there  is  no  class  of  diseases 
more  afflicting  and  protracted.  Most  of  nervous  complaints  proceed 
from  inveterate  irritation  of  the  sentient  ends  of  nerves,  and  cause 
morbid  influences  by  sympathy.  The  head,  stomach,  liver,  and 
bowels,  all  reciprocally  act  upon  each  other,  and  the  mind,  being 
connected  to  the  body  by  these  nerves,  becomes  proportionably 
diseased,  melancholy,  depressed,  if  not  deranged. 

The  treatment  consists  in  removing,  as  far  as  possible,  all  excit- 
ing causes ;  in  regulating  the  digestive  organs  by  appropriate  vege- 
table medicine,  and  proper  diet,  which  should  be  light  and  nutritious. 
The  surface  of  the  body  should  be  daily  bathed  with  weak  cold  ley 
water,  followed  by  friction.  Exercise  should  be  taken  daily  in  the 
open  air,  in  pleasant  weather.  Constant  employment  is  indispensa- 
bly necessary.  All  gloomy  stories  and  objects  to  be  avoided.  The 
medicines  indicated  are  laxatives,  nervines,  and  tonics.  Mercury  to 
be  avoided.  Fowler  on  the  subject  of  Nervous  Diseases  has  the 
following  remarks  : — 

"  THE    CURE    OF    DISORDERED    NERVES. 

"  The  mental  signs  of  nervous  disease  or  state  of  feeling  have 
already  been  pointed  out.  It  remains  to  give  a  few  physical  in- 


FIG.  23. 


Series  of  glands  along  the  neck  with  some  of  their  satellites,  together  with  the  princi- 
pal nerves  of  the  neck  and  face  with  which  they  are  connected.  This  series,  with  that 
on  the  left  side  of  the  neck,  is  continued  along  the  whole  length  of  the  spine  under  the 
names  of  dorsal,  lumbar,  and  sacral  glands  before  noticed.  On  an  examination  of  the 
fluid  that  has  passed  through  these  glands  on  its  way  to  the  heart,  with  a  magnifying 
glass,  it  is  found  to  contain  a  great  number  of  minute  round  bodies  of  a  white  or  milky 
color,  which  are  accumulated  in  the  blood  and  form  its  globules. 


*,   * 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  103 

dices,  so  that  those  afflicted  may  know  what  ails  them.  Tender- 
ness, amounting  perhaps  to  soreness,  on  the  top  of  the  head  just 
behind  Veneration  betokens  this  disease.  The  reason  is  this.  As 
the  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  muscles,  and  all  the  internal  organs  have 
each  their  respective  cerebral  organs  in  the  cerebellum,  so  the 
nervous  system  has  its  centre  at  that  seat  of  the  soul  already  pointed 
out,  so  that  the  painful  state  of  the  nerves  causes  pain  at  this  their 
centre,  and  of  course  a  tenderness  at  the  top  of  the  head  over  this 
seat.  This  shows  why  nervous  derangement  disorders  all  the  feel- 
ings and  renders  all  the  mental  operations  painful.  Hence  nervous 
people  can  never  enjoy  life  till  they  restore  their  nerves. 

"  Besides  this  tenderness,  nervous  patients  are  easily  agitated, 
flustered,  and  thrown  into  a  confused  state  of  mind  by  trifles,  are 
easily  elated  and  depressed,  quick  in  all  their  movements,  full  of 
excitement,  liable  to  wakefulness,  and  full  of  bad  feelings  through- 
out mind  and  body. 

"  But  to  their  cure.  This  disease  is  more  frequently  sympathetic 
than  primary.  Dyspepsia  is  always  accompanied  by  nervousness. 
So  are  heart  affections,  scrofula,  gout,  fevers,  colds,  and  nearly  or 
quite  all  forms  of  disease.  In  fact,  as  the  nerves  are  ramified 
throughout  every  organ  and  portion  of  the  body,  and  reciprocally 
inter-related  with  every  part,  of  course  they  sympathize  perfectly 
with  the  healthy  and  diseased,  active  and  sluggish  state  of  the  body 
as  a  whole,  and  of  all  its  parts.  Hence,  whether  nervous  disorders 
are  primary  or  sympathic,  the  effectual  means  of  curing  them  is  to 
restore  the  tone  and  vigor  of  the  SYSTEM  AS  A  WHOLE,  by  obeying 
those  laws  of  dietetics,  circulation,  respiration,  sleep,  bathing,  fric- 
tion, exercise,  and  the  like,  already  pointed  out.  True,  health  of 
nerves  more  effectually  promotes  general  health  than  perhaps  all 
other  instrumentalities.  Indeed,  the  perfect  reciprocity  existing 
between  them  and  the  rest  of  the  system  renders  it  difficult  to  say 
whether  remedial  agents  should  be  applied  primarily  to  them  when 
disordered  or  to  the  system  as  a  whole.  But  this  much  is  certain, 
that  the  promotion  of  general  health  is  the  great  means  of  restoring 
disordered  nerves.  Let  nervous  patients  then  strictly  fulfil  all  the 
conditions  of  health,  if  they  would  effect  a  cure.  To  a  few  items, 
however,  special  attention  should  be  directed. 

"  1.  The  importance  of  bathing,  friction,  and  healthy  action  of 
the  skin  is  to  such  doubly  enhanced,  directions  for  which  need  not 
be  repeated.  The  hand-bath,  properly  applied,  will  be  found  an 
almost  sovereign  panacea  for  these  complaints. 


104  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

"  2.  Those  nervous  subjects  who  are  also  dyspeptic  need  not  ex- 
pect to  restore  their  nerves  till  they  restore  their  stomachs.  The 
corruption  engendered  by  impaired  digestion,  is  so  great  as  to  keep 
even  healthy  nerves  in  a  perpetual  fever.  This  irritating  cause 
must  be  removed  before  health  can  be  restored ;  directions  for  which 
will  be  found  under  dyspepsia. 

"  3.  Nervous  people  are  particularly  troubled  with  restlessness. 
Though  perpetually  worn  out  for  want  of  rest,  they  can  compose 
themselves  to  sleep  only  with  difficulty,  sleep  lightly,  are  restless, 
disturbed  by  dreams,  easily  wakened,  and  find  great  difficulty  in 
again  getting  to  sleep.  Hence  such  should  sleep  ALL  THEY  CAN. 
No  cure  for  nervousnes  at  all  equals  sleep  j  nor  are  eight  and  even 
ten  hours  per  diem  too  much  for  such.  They  sleep  slowly  when 
asleep,  yet  exhaust  themselves  rapidly  while  awake,  and  hence 
should  devote  the  more  time  to  this  all-important  function.  Let 
such  observe  with  especial  assiduity  the  directions  for  promoting 
sleep  already  prescribed.  To  such,  light  suppers  and  as  much 
exercise  as  can  be  well  borne  will  be  found  especially  important. 
Yet  such  hate  to  move  till  obliged  to,  and  then  are  perpetually  lia- 
ble to  over  exertion — not  to  do  too  much  absolutely,  but  too  FAST,  so 
as  to  induce  that  trembling  already  pointed  out  as  a  sign  of  this. 
If  they  would  only  exercise  moderately,  they  might  do  a  great  deal 
more,  but  their  nervousness  renders  them  always  in  a  great  hurry, 
and  hence  they  take  hold  of  exercise  too  rashly.  Such  should  work 
moderately  till  just  comfortably  tired,  then  rest  awhile,  perhaps  lie 
down,  and,  if  possible,  take  a  nap,  then  return  to  work,  and  thus 
often  alternate  between  action  and  rest.  Day  naps  to  the  nervous 
will  be  found  especially  serviceable. 

"  4.  To  the  influence  of  griefyand  all  kinds  of  sadness,  melan- 
choly, and  despondency,  special  attention  is  invited.  See  how 
many  tolerably  healthy  mothers  have  become  nervous  immediately 
on  the  death  of  a  dearly  beloved  friend  or  child,  have  declined 
rapidly,  and  soon  after  followed  their  lost  one  to  a  premature  grave. 
Those  at  all  predisposed  to  nervous  disorder,  who  may  lose  friends, 
must  banish  grief,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  not  indulge  it.  Must  their 
death  hasten  yours  7  If  your  grief  could  benefit  their  souls,  indulge 
it ;  but  since  it  injuries  you  in  the  most  effectual  manner  possible, 
without  doing  any  good,  practical  wisdom  dictates  its  banishment. 
Instead,  cultivate  cheerfulness  and  even  mirth.  Nothing  will 
equally  soothe  irritated  nerves,  or  tend  to  restore  their  tone  and 
happy  function. 


FIG.  20. 


Fibres  are  here  seen  radiating  from  the  third  ventricle  or  clmty  p,  into  the  substance 
of  the  brain,  and  along  the  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord  r,  and  the  convolutions  in 
the  front  part  of  the  cerebrum  D  D  are  here  seen  to  converge  to  a  centre.  In  dissec- 
tions, the  radiations  are  also  seen  extending  along  the  nerves,  like  those  along  the  optic 
nerves  seen  in  this  figure,  and  from  the  spinal  cord  along  the  spinal  nerves  connected 
with  the  organs.  So  that  the  medulla  oblongata,  spinal  cord,  and  spinal  nerves,  with 
those  that  issue  from  the  central  portions  of  the  brain,  appear  like  an  elongation  or  con- 
tinuation of  its  stria. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  105 

"  5.  Severe  mental  application  is  especially  deleterious  to  nervous 
invalids.  Their  disorder  consists  mainly  in  predominant  cerebral 
and  nervous  action  ;  and  their  cure,  in  restoring  the  requisite  balance 
by  reducing  it.  Those,  then,  whose  occupation  requires  much 
mental  application,  must  give  up  their  business  or  their  happiness, 
if  not  lives.  The  former  may  be  like  plucking  a  right  eye,  but  the 
latter  is  worse.  Why  prosecute  business  at  the  sacrifice  of  life  7 
Do  you  not  pursue  your  avocation  simply  as  a  means  of  enjoy- 
ment 1  Then  why  not  give  it  up  when  it  conflicts  with  this  only 
end  of  life  ?  Besides,  by  suspending  it  till  restored,  how  much 
more  you  will  be  enabled  to  do  in  the  long  run.  So  that,  merely 
for  the  sake  of  accomplishing  the  very  business  you  would  do, 
postpone  it  temporarily. 

"  What  folly  to  sacrifice  a  lifetime  of  business  to  a  few  months, 
or  even  years  !  Why  kill  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  egg  7 
Cure  your  nerves  first,  and  do  your  business  afterwards. 

"  A  light,  simple  diet  is  quite  as  indispensable  to  the  nervous  as 
dyspeptic.  Few  things  oppress  the  nervous  more  than  over- eating, 
or  relieve  them  more  than  abstemiousness. 

"  6.  But  a  cooling  diet  is  even  more  important.  All  condiments, 
all  stimulants,  act  mainly  upon  the  nerves,  and  re-excite,  and  still 
farther  disease  them.  Hence  all  alcoholic  drinks,  wines,  beers, 
cider,  ale,  all  kinds  of  fermented  liquors  are  fire  to  them,  and  should 
be  wholly  avoided.  Tobacco  is  another  powerful  irritant — is  fatal 
to  nervous  quiet.  In  common  with  opium,  it  exhilarates  tempora- 
rily only  ultimately  to  fever  and  disorder.  No  higher  proof  of  this 
is  required  than  the  feelings  consequent  on  its  abstinence.  And 
the  more  wretched  you  feel  when  deprived  of  yoi^Jupe,  quid,  or 
segar,  the  more  it  has  already  impaired  your  ner^pind  will  in- 
crease its  ravages. 

"  7.  Tea  and  coffee  have  a  similar  effect.  The  stronger  teas  are 
rank  poison  to  the  nerves,  and  black  teas  are  poisonous,  though  less 
so.  Coffee  is  still  worse.  Its  strong  narcotic  properties  powerfully 
enhance  nervous  irritability,  and  will  create,  much  more  aggravate 
nervous  disorder.  Susceptible  as  my  nerves  are,  nothing  would 
tempt  me  to  fever  them  by  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  or  alcohol,  and  all 
who  do  are  consummately  foolish,  and  even  wicked,  and  sinning 
against  their  own  peace." 


106 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY, 


IMPROVED    METHOD    TO    DISCOVER    DISEASE    THROUGH     THE     MEDIUM 
OF   THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  on  the  nervous  system,  I  will  give  the 
method  practised  much  by  Dr.  H.  H.  Sherwood,  of  this  city,  in 


Press  here  to  find 
symptoms  of  tuber- 
cula  of  the  head, 
throat,  and  tongue. 


Cervical  vertebrae. 


Here  to  find  them 
of  the  arms. 

Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  lungs 
and  heart. 

Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  stomach 
and  large  intes- 
tines 

Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  liver. 

Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  small 
intestines. 
Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  kid- 
neys. 

Here  to  find  dis- 
ease of  the  uterus. 

And  here  to  find 
disease  of  genital 
organs. 


THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  107 

forming  a  diagnosis  or  opinion  of  disease,  and  which,  in  many 
obscure  cases  will  enable  or  aid  the  physician  much  better  to  dis- 
criminate between  different  diseases.  Some  persons  expect  or 
think  that  a  doctor  must  know  everything,  and  tell  their  complaints 
perhaps  without  asking  them  a  single  question.  This  method  will, 
in  many  cases,  impart  this  secret.  Generally,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  form  our  opinion  by  other  means  of  investigation. 

Sherwood  states  as  follows,  in  a  treatise  called  his  MOTIVE 
POWER  : — These  forces  point  to  the  disease  in  every  other  part 
of  the  system  that  may  be  tuberculated,  in  the  most  arbitrary  man- 
ner, as  in  these  cases  without  any  regard  to  the  classification  of 
nosologists,  or  the  pedantic  theories  of  the  schools. 

In  tubercula  of  the  stomach,  and  its  immediate  appendages, 
called  dyspepsia,  pressure  between  the  2d,  3d  and  4th,  and  some- 
times 5th  and  6th  dorsal  spaces,  (counting  from  the  last  or  large 
joint  of  the  neck,)  produces  pain. 

In  tubercula  of  the  liver,  called  chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver, 
or  liver  complaint,  pain  is  produced  by  pressing  on  the  right  side, 
between  the  7th  and  8th,  and  8th  and  9th  dorsal  spaces,  and 
directly  opposite  to  the  lower  part  of  the  right  shoulder  blade. 

In  tubercula  of  the  spleen,  pain  is  produced  by  pressure  on  the 
left  side  of  the  last  named,  or  7th  and  8th,  and  8th  and  9th 
dorsal  spaces,  and  opposite  to  the  lower  part  of  the  left  shoulder 
blade. 

In  tubercula  of  the  right  kidney,  pain  is  produced  by  pressure  on 
the  right  side  of  the  space  between  the  12th  or  last  dorsal,  and  first 
lumbar  vertebra,  and  in  tubercula  of  the  left  kidney,  pain  is  pro- 
duced by  pressure  on  the  left  side  of  the  12th  dorsal  and  first 
lumbar. 

In  tubercula  of  the  uterus,  called  leucorrhoea,  cholorosis,  ame- 
norhoea,  and  menorrhagia,  pain  is  produced  by  pressure,  between 
all  the  joints  of  the  back,  except  the  1st  and  2d. 

In  tubercula  of  the  genital  organs,  pain  is  produced  by  pressure, 
between  the  5th  or  last  lumbar  space,  and  the  os-coxyx. 

This  pain,  produced  by  pressure,  is  always  more  or  less  severe, 
in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  the  disease.  If  there  is  but  little 
disease,  the  pressure  will  produce  but  little  pain ;  but  if  there  is 
much  disease,  the  pain  will  be  severe.* 

The  disease,  in  whatever  organ  it  may  be,  is  always  either  active 
or  passive,  and  if  it  is  active,  when  such  pressure  is  made,  this  pain, 
*  Reason,  a  part  of  greater  sensibility,  sympathizing  with  one  of  less. 


108  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

on  every  repetition  of  the  pressure,  will  dart  into  the  diseased  organ, 
with  a  force  or  violence,  proportioned  to  the  intensity  of  the  disease. 

ANOTHER    BUT    SIMILAR    FIGURE    TO    LEARN    DISEASE. 

Acute  and  chronic  tubercula,  or  inflammatory,  and  chronic 
diseases  of  the  serous  membranes,  or  serous  surfaces  of  the  body, 
organs  or  limbs,  including  the  skin  and  facia  of  the  muscles,  is 
easily  and  invariably  distinguished  by  pain  more  or  less  severe  (in 
proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  disease),  produced  by  pressure  on 
the  ganglions  of  the  spinal  nerves,  in  the  intervertebral  spaces  along 
each  side  of  the  spine  without  any  previous  knowledge  of  the  case 
— no  matter  what  name  may  have  been  given  to  the  disease  by  phy- 
sicians, nosologists,  or  other  medical  writers. 

Ganglions  of  the  Spinal  Nerves  in  the  intervertebral  spaces. 


There  are  7  cervical  vertebrae,  C  ;  12  dorsal,  D  ;  and  5  lumbar,  L  ;  these  vertebrae,  with  the  os 
coccyx,  m,  constitute  the  spinal  column.  The  spinal  cord  passes  from  the  brain  along  the  round 
cavity  through  the  middle  of  the  vertebras,  and  the  above  ganglions  are  connected  with  it  by  the 
sympathetic  nerves,  which  are  also  connected  with  the  organs  and  muscles. 

Press  on  the  sides  of  the  1st  cervical  vertebra  to  find  symptoms 
of  tubercula  of  the  head — of  the  brain,  throat,  nose,  eyes,  or  ears. 

Press  on  the  sides  of  the  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7  cervical  to  find  tu- 
bercula of  the  muscles  (Rheumatism),  or  of  the  vertebra,  or  of  the 
joints  of  the  limbs — white  swellings,  &c. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM*  109 

Press  on  the  sides  of  the  intervertebral  space  between  the  7  cer- 
vical, and  1  dorsal,  to  find  tubercula  of  the  lungs ;  and 

Press  on  the  left  side  of  the  same  space  to  find  tubercula  of  the 
heart. 

Press  on  the  space  between  the  1  and  2  dorsal  vertebrae  to  find 
tubercula  of  the  stomach. 

Press  on  the  space  between  the  2  and  3  dorsal  to  find  tubercula 
of  the  duodenum. 

Press  on  the  right  side  of  the  space  between  the  7  and  8  dorsal 
to  find  tubercula  of  the  liver. 

Press  on  the  spaces  between  the  11  and  12  dorsal  to  find  tuber- 
cula of  the  small  intestines. 

Press  on  the  spaces  between  the  12  dorsal  and  first  lumbar  to 
find  tubercula  of  the  kidneys. 

Press  on  the  spaces  between  the  1  and  4  lumbar  to  find  tuber- 
cula of  the  uterus. 

Press  on  the  spaces  between  the  4  lumbar  and  os  coccyx  to  find 
tubercula  of  the  ovaria,  prostrate  gland,  vesicular  seminales,  and 
testes. 

Press  on  the  spaces  between  the  4  lumbar  and  os  coccyx,  to  find 
tubercula  of  vagina,  &c. 

We  always  press  with  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  on  the  inter- 
vertebral  spaces  of  the  left  side  of  the  spine,  and  with  that  of  the 
left  hand  on  the  intervebral  spaces  of  the  right  side. 

These  directions  will  enable  any  person  of  common  sense  to  dis- 
tinguish tubercular  disease  with  facility  and  certainty,  without  the 
aid  of  a  physician. 


110 


ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Spinal  Cord. 


Spinal  nerves  con- 
nected with  the  left 
arm 


Left  lung. 


Stomach. 


Spleen.  •— 


Portion  of  the  small 
intestines  and  mesen- 
tary. 


Left  kidney. 


Uterus. 


Spinal     nerve      con- 
nected with  the    sa- 


Spinal  nerves  distri- 
buted to  the  lower 
limbs. 


Spinal     nerves    con- 
iS    nected  with  the  right 
arm. 


Right  lung 


Stomach. 


Liver. 


Small  intestines  and 
mesentary. 


— —  Bight  kidney. 


Uterus. 


Spinal  nerve  con- 
nected with  the  sa- 
crum. 

Spinal  nerves  dis- 
tributed to  the  lower 
limbs. 


A,  Representing  a  back  view  of  the  organs,  cords,  and  connexions  with  the  spinal  and  sympa- 
thetic nerves,  ganglions,  and  glands,  with  tubercular  diseases  of  these  organs,  as  seen  in  clusters 
like  grapes— F  and  G. 


Gives  a  beautiful  view  of  the  grand  sympathetic  nerve,  ganglions,  and  other  organs 
of  the  body  connected  with  it.  Reduced  from  Manec's  plate.  This  nerve  has  its 
origin  in  or  near  the  brain,  and  is  extensively  distributed  over  various  parts  of  the  body, 
and  accounts  for  the  sympathy  which  one  part  has  with  another,  though  very  distant. 

The  figures  refer  to  the  infinite  number  of  ganglions,  flexures,  and  branches  of  this 
great  and  extraordinary  nerve.  Sherwood  says,  "  I  have  no  doubt  the  ganglions  of  this 
nerve  evolve  a  nervous  fluid,  which  is  magnetic,  being  magnetic  poles'or  forces." 


RESPIRATION.  Ill 


CHAPTER    VII. 

RESPIRATION. 
STRUCTURE    OF   THE    LUNGS THE   THORAX    AND    ITS    CONTENTS. 

THE  thorax  is  Bounded  anteriorly  by  the  sternum  and  cartilages 
of  the  ribs,  posteriorly  by  the  vertebrae  and  lesser  circle  of  the  ribs, 
and  on  either  side  by  the  shafts  of  the  ribs  and  the  intercostal  mus- 
cles. Its  upper  orifice  is  transversely  oval,  and  allows  the  exit  and 
entrance  of  vessels,  nerves,  and  muscles  to  and  from  its  cavity  ; 
its  inferior  orifice,  or  circumference,  being  much  larger,  and  closed 
by  the  diaphragm. 

The  thorax  contains  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  also  several  vessels, 
nerves,  glands,  &c.,  to  be  noticed  as  we  proceed. 

THE    PLEURJE 

Are  two  serous  membranes,  one  on  either  side,  which  cover  the 
inner  surface  of  the  thorax,  and  are  reflected  upon  the  outer  sur- 
faces of  the  parts  contained  in  its  cavity.  That  portion  of  the 
pleura  which  lines  the  thorax,  is  called  the  parietal  layer,  and  that 
which  lines  the  contained  parts  the  visceral  layer.  Each  pleura 
can  be  traced  in  the  following  manner  : — From  the  posterior  sur- 
face of  the  sternum  it  passes  backwards  until  it  meets  with  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  pericardium,  along  the  side  of  which  it  passes 
to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  root  of  the  lung ;  from  this  it  passes 
upon  the  lung,  and  is  reflected  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  organ, 
until  it  arrives  at  the  posterior  surface  of  its  root  and  of  the  peri- 
cardium, from  whence  it  passes  upon  the  sides  of  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae,  reaching  as  high  as  the  transverse  process  of  the  sixth 
cervical  vertebra  on  the  right  side,  the  seventh  on  the  left,  and  de- 
scending to  the  diaphragm,  the  thoracic  aspect  of  which  it  covers ; 
it  finally  lines  the  ribs  and  intercostal  muscles,  until  it  arrives  at 
the  portion  which  was  opened,  and  which  corresponds  to  the  pos- 
terior aspect  of  the  sternum. 

Ligamentum  latum  pulmonis  (one  on  either  side)  is  merely  a  tri- 
angular fold  of  pleura,  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  membrane 
from  the  lower  edge  of  the  root  of  the  lung  upon  the  diaphragm. 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


ANTERIOR    MEDIASTINUM, 

A  triangular  cavity  formed  by  tearing  through  the  cellular  tissue, 
which  connects  the  right  and  left  pleura  behind  the  sternum ;  the 
base  is  formed  by  the  sternum,  the  sides  by  the  separated  pleura, 
and  the  apex  corresponds  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  peri- 
cardium, where  the  pleurae  separate  to  enclose  this  bag.  Thus 
formed,  it  contains  the  origins  of  the  sterno-hyoid  and  sterno- 
thyroid  muscles,  branches  of  the  descendens  noni  nerve,  the  remains 
of  the  thymus  gland,  lymphatic  glands  and  a^orbents,  the  mam- 
mary vessels,  the  triangulare  sterni  muscles,  and  loose  cellular 
tissue. 

MIDDLE    MEDIASTINUM 

Is  of  an  oval  shape,  and  is  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  pleura 
upon  the  sides  of  the  pericardium ;  it  consequently  contains  this 
bag  and  its  contents. 

POSTERIOR    MEDIASTINUM 

Is  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  pleurae  upon  the  sides  of  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrae  ;  it  is  of  a  triangular  form,  the  apex  anterior 
corresponding  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  pericardium,  the  sides 
formad  by  the  pleurae,  and  the  base  represented  by  the  anterior  sur- 
faces of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  ;  it  extends  from  the  third  to 
the  tenth  dorsal  vertebra,  and  contains  the  following  parts  : — the 
bifurcation  of  the  trachea,  the  oesophagus,  and  pneumo-gastric 
nerves,  the  thoracic  duct,  the  vena  azygos,  the  thoracic  aorta,  the 
splanchnic  nerves,  lymphatic  glands,  absorbents,  and  loose  cellu- 
lar tissue. 

THE    LUNGS 

Are  two  soft,  spongy,  vascular  bodies,  one  contained  on  each  side 
of  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  Each  lung  resembles  a  cone,  with  that 
side  corresponding  to  the  median  line  truncated  ;  the  base  concave, 
corresponds  to  the  diaphragm,  the  obtuse  rounded  apex  rises  in  the 
neck,  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  first  rib ;  the  external  convex 
surface  corresponds  to  the  internal  concave  surface  of  the  thoracic 
parietes,  and  the  flat  or  truncated  surface  corresponds  to  the  me- 
diastina.  The  posterior  edge  of  the  lung  is  thick  and  rounded, 
whilst  the  anterior  is  thin  and  irregular.  Each  lung  is  distinguished 
into  lobes,  which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  fissures ;  a  little 
above  the  centre  of  each  is  the  root  formed  by  the  pulmonary  ves- 


RESPIRATION.  113 

sels  and  bronchial  tube,  connected  to  each  other  by  cellular  tissue, 
and  invested  by  the  pleura.  The  bronchial  tube  is  situated  posterior 
and  superior  to  the  pulmonary  vessels ;  the  two  pulmonary  veins 
are  placed  anterior  and  inferior  to  the  artery  and  bronchus,  and  the 
pulmonary  artery  is  placed  between  the  bronchus  and  the  pulmonary 
veins,  but  behind  the  pulmonary  veins  and  before  the  bronchus. 
The  root  of  each  lung  has  anterior  to  it  the  phrenic  nerve  and  fila- 
ments of  the  pneumo-gastric  nerve ;  posterior  to  it  the  pulmonic 
plexus,  and  inferior  the  ligamentum  latum.  The  root  of  the  right 
lung  has  the  vena«azygos  arching  over  it. 

The  right  and  left  lungs  differ  from  each  other  in  some  important 
particulars :  the  right  lung  is  broader  and  shorter  than  the  left,  and 
consists  of  three  lobes,  separated  by  two  fissures  ;  the  right  also 
ascends  higher  in  the  neck,  and  the  anterior  edge  of  the  left  pre- 
sents a  notch  where  it  corresponds  to  the  apex  of  the  heart. 

The  intimate  structure  of  the  lungs  consists  of  the  ultimate  rami- 
fications of  the  bronchial  tubes,  which  are  the  continuations  of  the 
trachea,  and  the  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  and  veins ;  they 
also  receive  bronchial  arteries  for  their  nutrition. 

TRACHEA    AND    ITS    RAMIFICATIONS. 

The  wind-pipe,  or  trachea,  is  a  cylindrical  tube,  extending  from 
the  crycoid  cartilage  of  the  larynx  to  the  level  of  the  third  dorsal 
vertebra.  It  consists  of  from  seventeen  to  twenty  fibro-cartilagi- 
nous  rings,  truncated  behind,  and  connected  to  each  other  by  an 
elastic  membrane  ;  about  the  posterior  fourth  of  each  ring  is  de- 
ficient, and  its  place  is  supplied  by  fibrous  membrane. 

Opposite  the  third  dorsal  vertebra  the  trachea  divides  into  the 
right  and  left  bronchial  tubes  ;  the  right  bronchus  is  larger  than  the 
left,  and  runs  transversely  into  the  root  of  the  lung  and  divides  into 
three  branches  ;  the  left  bronchus  passes  through  the  arch  of  the 
aorta  to  the  root  of  the  left  lung,  and  divides  into  two  branches. 

The  bronchi  consist  of  cartilaginous  rings,  but  as  these  tubes 
advance  into  the  substance  of  the  lung,  they  diminish  in  size  and 
firmness,  until  their  place  is  supplied  by  fibrous  tissue,  or  transverse 
circular  fibres,  which  tissue  also  disappears,  and  at  length  nothing 
remains  hut  the  mucous  membrane,  which  terminates  in  the  air-cells, 
upon  which  ramify  the  ultimate  ramifications  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  and  the  commencing  radicles  of  the  pulmonary  veins. 

The  ramifications  of  the  pulmonary  artery  communicate  with 
those  of  the  pulmonary  veins,  beneath  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
8 


114  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

air-cells,  and  are  enveloped  in  fine  cellular  tissue ;  and  except  this 
cellular  tissue,  the  lung  has  no  proper  parenchyma,  its  structure 
being  entirely  filamento-vascular.  The  lungs  are  supplied  with 
blood  by  the  bronchial  arteries,  derived  from  the  thoracic  aorta ; 
these  vessels  run  along  the  bronchial  tubes,  subdivide  as  they  pro- 
ceed, and  form  a  minute  net-work  on  the  attached  surface  of  the 
bronchial  mucous  membrane ;  the  blood  they  convey  to  the  lungs 
is  returned  to  the  vena  azygos,  or  superior  cava.  The  nerves  dis- 
tributed to  the  lungs  are  derived  from  the  eighth  pair,  and  a  few 
filaments  from  the  sympathetic.  • 

We  have  now  to  'Consider  the  changes  the  blood  undergoes  in  its 
course  to  and  through  the  lungs.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  left 
side  of  the  heart  sends  the  blood  into  the  general  system ;  this  is 
called  the  systemic  circulation.  The  right  side  of  the  heart  sends  it 
into  the  lungs,  and  this  has  received  the  name  of  the  pulmonic  circu- 
lation. But  if  the  blood  that  goes  to  the  lungs  were  received  in  the 
same  state  as  it  is  sent,  death  would  be  the  consequence,  for  venous 
blood  is  poison  to  the  body  ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  an  animal 
dies  when  the  air  is  prevented  from  getting  into  its  windpipe  by  hang- 
ing or  drowning.  Bichat  showed  this  very  decisively.  He  connected, 
by  a  tube,  the  jugular  vein  of  one  dog  with  the  carotid  artery  (which 
sends  the  blood  to  the  brain)  of  another,  and  allowed  the  venous 
blood  to  flow  into  it.  The  immediate  effect  of  this  was,  that  the 
dog  in  whose  brain  the  venous  blood  was  made  to  circulate,  became 
completely  insensible,  and  would  in  a  short  time  have  died.  On 
allowing  the  arterial  blood,  however,  again  to  circulate  in  its  brain, 
the  dog  was  quickly  restored. 

What  are  the  changes,  then,  that  take  place  in  the  lungs,  and 
how  are  these  changes  effected  ?  The  lungs,  then  (vulgarly  called 
lights),  are  principally  composed,  1st,  of  air-tubes  (bronchi),  of 
which  the  windpipe  (trachea)  is  the  commencement,  and  which 
divide  and  subdivide  until  they  terminate  in  very  minute  bags  or 
air-vesicles ;  and,  2dly,  of  the  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery, 
which  branch  out  upon  the  sides  of  these  air-tubes.  The  annexed 
plate  shows  the  windpipe,  with  the  lungs  entire  on  one  side,  and 
with  the  branches  of  the  air-tubes  dissected  on  the  other.  These 
tubes  terminate  in  vesicles,  which  are  said  to  vary  in  size  from  the 
fiftieth  to  the  one  hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Fio.  27.  THE  RIGHT  LUNG,  AND  AIR-PASSAGES  or  THE  LEFT  LUNG, 


,  £  The  Jra.chea  or  windpipe,  b  Bronchial  tubes,  c  c  c  Three  lobes  of  the  ridit  lung 
d  The  inferior  or  concave  surface  of  the  right  lung,  e  e  e  Air-passages  of  the  left  Jun| 
or  division  and  subdivision  of  the  bronchial  tubes  S' 


FIG.  28.  THE  HEART  AND  ITS  BLOOD-VESSELS. 


RESPIRATION. 
Figure  I. 


115 


Represents  the  Trachea,  or  windpipe,  its  bifurcation  or  division  into  two  great  branches,  called 
bronchial  tubes  or  pipes  (the  seat  of  BRONCHITIS).  They  again  divide  into  numerous  branches, 
too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  and  terminate  in  a  multiplicity  of  cells,  which  at  every 
inspiration  are  filled  with  atmospheric  air,  which  comes  in  contact  with  venous  or  impure  blood, 
and  changes  it  from  a  dark  state  to  a  bright,  healthy  vermillion  or  red  color,  and  then  is  transmitted 
back  to  the  heart. 

Figure  2. 


Represents  the  vesicles  or  air  bladders,  the  first  round  and  natural ;  ihs  second,  dissected  or  open. 

If  we  tie  up  tightly  in  a  bladder  a  quantity  of  venous  or  dark 
blood,  we  shall  find,  in  a  short  time,  that  exposure  to  the  air  has 
changed  the  color  of  the  portion  near  the  surface.  The  air  has 
passed  through  the  bladder,  and  has  converted  the  venous  into  red 
or  arterial  blood.  Exactly  the  same  thing  takes  place  in  the  lungs  ; 
for  %ie  air,  in  the  air-vesicles,  is  separated  from  the  blood  in  its 
vessels  by  a  membrane  not  more  than  the  thousandth  part  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  But  we  shall  find,  immediately,  that  it  is  not  the 
blood  alone  that  is  altered  in  its  qualities.  The  air  also  undergoes 
alterations.  The  blood  in  the  lungs  becomes  fit  for  supporting  life ; 
the  air  becomes  unfit  for  this  purpose.  We  must,  therefore,  describe, 
1st,  the  means  by  which  the  air  is  brought  into,  and  then  removed 
from,  the  lungs  ;  and,  2dly,  the  changes  of  composition  that  thence 
occur  in  the  air  and  in  the  blood. 


116  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  lungs,  then,  are  contained  in  the  chest  or  thorax,  a  conical 
cavity  formed  by  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  before,  the  back-bone 
behind,  and  the  ribs  above  and  on  the  sides.  It  is  separated  in- 
feriorly  from  the  abdomen  or  belly  by  a  fleshy  movable  partition 
called  the  diaphragm,  which  is  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  breast- 
bone and  edges  of  the  short  ribs  before,  and  extends  downwards 
and  backwards  to  be  attached  also  to  the  spine  behind.  Through 
this  the  cesophagus  or  gullet,  blood-vessels,  &c.,  pass.  The  whole 
inside  of  the  chest  is  lined  by  a  thin  smooth  membrane  called  the 
pleura,  which  divides  the  chest  into  a  right  and  a  left  side,  and 
which  likewise  covers  the  lungs ;  but  these  are,  nevertheless,  on 
the  outside  of  the  pleura,  in  the  same  way  as  the  head  is  on  the 
outside  of  the  double  nightcap.  There  is  no  opening  to  admit  the 
air  between  the  lungs  and  sides  of  the  chest,  but  it  gets  in  easily 
by  the  windpipe  into  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs. 

From  these  explanations  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  the 
mechanism  of  respiration  (breathing).  Drawing  in  a  breath  is 
called  inspiration.  We  do  this,  1st,  by  raising  the  ribs,  which  are 
provided  with  numerous  muscles  for  this  purpose  between  the  ribs, 
and  attached  to  the  ribs  and  neck  ;  and,  2dly,  and  at  the  same 
time,  by  depressing  the  diaphragm.  Of  the  latter  movement  we 
become  sensible,  by  placing  the  hand  on  the  abdomen  during  in- 
spiration, when  we  notice  the  ribs  raised,  and  find  the  belly  pushed 
outwards  at  the  same  moment  by  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm.  It 
is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  cavity  of  the  chest  must  be  consider- 
ably enlarged  by  inspiration.  But  the  cavity  of  the  chest  cannot  be 
enlarged  without  something  filling  it  up  ;  and  as  no  air  can  get 
between  the  lungs  and  sides  of  the  chest,  if  the  windpipe  remain 
open,  the  air  necessarily  rushes  by  it  into  the  air-tubes  and  vesicles 
of  the  lungs,  and  blows  them  up  as  we  might  blow  up  a 
bladder.  The  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the  lungs  is  effected  prin- 
cipally by  the  elasticity  of  the  ribs,  and  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  the  belly  pushing  up  the  diaphragm.  It  is  called  expi- 
ration. 

It  must  be  manifest,  from  considering  these  arrangements,  that 
the  amount  of  blood  and  air  brought  together  in  the  lungs  must  be 
very  great.  The  whole  extent  of  the  air-tubes,  in  man,  taken  col- 
lectively, has  been  calculated  by  Hales  at  about  twenty  thousand 
square  inches,  and  by  Monro  at  twenty  times  the  surface  of  the 
human  body  ;  the  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  which  ramify 
upon  this  surface,  are  so  twined  and  interlaced,  that  they  have  re- 


RESPIRATION.  117 

ceived  the  name,  from  anatomists,  of  the  wonderful  net-work  ;  while 
the  air  received  into  and  expelled  from  the  lungs,  and  consequently 
brought  into  contact  with  its  air-tubes  and  blood-vessels,  cannot 
be  less,  in  an  ordinary  man,  than  between  three  and  four  thousand 
gallons  daily. 

Fresh  supplies  of  air,  then,  that  the  blood  may  be  purified,  are 
the  essential  objects  of  a  respiratory  apparatus ;  and  from  the 
necessity  of  having  some  modification  of  such  an  apparatus,  no 
animal  whatever  is  exempted,  although  the  supply  of  air  required 
varies  much.  A  frog  or  lizard,  for  example,  will  live  a  considerable 
time  in  air  which  a  bird  has  been  forced  to  breathe  till  it  has  died, 
and  insects  will  live  for  a  long  period  even  in  the  air  that  has 
ceased  to  support  both  the  bird  and  the  lizard.  Fishes,  again, 
whose  gills  perform  the  same  office  as  our  lungs,  can  exist  upon 
the  small  portion  of  air  they  extract  from  the  water  in  which  they 
swim.  But,  however  small  the  quantity  required,  none  can  want 
it  altogether ;  and  if  any  of  them  be  placed  under  the  receiver  of  an 
air-pump,  and  the  air  be  exhausted,  they  immediately  become  dis- 
tressed, and  die  in  a  short  time. 

There  is  one  remarkable  circumstance  that  may  be  noted  when 
the  motions  of  the  heart,  or  intestines,  and  those  of  respiration, 
are  contrasted.  The  motions  of  the  former  are  entirely  removed 
from  the  influence  of  the  will,  and  usually  do  not  excite  in  us  any 
consciousness  of  their  existence ;  while  those  of  respiration  are 
always  preceded  by  a  sensation,  if  not  also  by  an  act,  of  volition. 
Before  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  chest,  we  have  always  a  peculiar 
sensation,  reminding  us  that  a  fresh  supply  of  this  material  is  re- 
quired. At  first,  this  sensation  is  merely  a  gentle  intimation  ;  but, 
if  neglected,  it  becomes  so  intolerably  painful,  as  to  compel  us  to 
relieve  it  by  breathing.  When  an  individual  becomes  partly  insen- 
sible, the  sensation  requires  to  be  considerable  before  he  attends  to 
it ;  and  accordingly  we  find,  that,  instead  of  breathing,  as  we  ordi- 
narily do,  fifteen  or  twenty  times  in  a  minute,  he  will  breathe  only 
once  in  half  a  minute.  When  insensibility  increases  still  further, 
this  and  all  other  feelings  become  extinct,  and  then  he  dies.  It  is 
upon  this  principle  we  give  an  explanation  of  sighing.  When  a 
perso'n  sighs,  the  mind  has  been  intensely  fixed  on  some  object. 
The  consequence  is,  as  Dr.  Darwin  has  remarked,  that  he  forgets 
for  a  short  time  to  breathe,  until  the  sensation  in  the  chest  becomes 
so  importunate  as  to  oblige  him  to  make  a  more  than  usually  full 
inspiration  to  relieve  it. 


118  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  mechanism  of  respiration  is  considerably  modified  in  other 
classes.  Whales  (which  breathe  air)  have  parts  that  are  thought 
to  serve  as  reservoirs,  both  of  venous  and  arterial  blood ;  and  this 
is  conjectured  to  be  the  reason  why  they  are  able  usually  to  remain 
under  water  twenty  minutes,  and  sometimes  upwards  of  an  hour, 
without  breathing.  The  lungs  of  birds,  instead  of  being  free  in  the 
chest,  are  fixed  to  its  sides,  and  also  have  openings  in  them  which 
allow  the  air  to  pass  into  air-cells  that  pervade  almost  every  part  of 
their  bodies.  As  a  proof  of  this,  if  the  windpipe  of  an  eagle  be  tied, 
and  the  largest  bone  of  its  wing  (humerus)  be  broken,  it  can  breathe 
through  the  broken  bone  instead  of  its  windpipe.  It  is  this  ar- 
rangement that  causes  the  respiration  of  birds  to  be  called  double, 
for  the  air  acts  on  the  blood,  1st,  in  passing  through  the  lungs  to 
the  air-cells  ;  2dly,  in  passing  out  of  these,  and  probably  also  while 
it  remains  in  the  air-cells.  Hence,  they  consume  more  air  than  any 
other  class  of  animals. 

Reptiles  can  act  but  imperfectly  on  the  air,  from  the  cells  of  their 
lungs  being  very  large,  and  from  this  cause  of  course  diminishing 
the  surface  upon  which  the  blood-vessels  have  to  be  distributed. 
The  frog  has  no  ribs,  nor  has  it  any  diaphragm,  the  abdomen  and 
chest  forming  but  one  cavity.  As  a  substitute  for  these,  the  air  is 
forced  into  the  lungs  by  a  species  of  deglutition.  A  frog  perishes 
if  its  mouth  is  kept  open,  because,  before  this  deglutition  can  be 
accomplished,  the  mouth  must  be  closed. 

The  surface  occupied  by  the  gills  of  fishes  is  often  very  consider- 
able. Those  of  one  kind  are  said  to  have  a  surface  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  the  human  body.  The  reason  why  air  cannot  usually  be 
directly  breathed  by  gills,  is  believed  to  be  principally  because  they 
become  collapsed  and  dry.  The  eel,  the  crab,  and  some  other 
species,  that  breathe  by  gills,  can,  however,  breathe  in  air  for  a 
considerable  time. 

The  only  other  modification  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  we 
shall  refer  to,  is  that  of  insects.  The  veined  appearance  of  the 
wings  of  the  butterfly  is  produced  by  what  are  called  tracheae,  that 
have  openings  on  the  surface  (stigmata)  for  admitting  the  air,  and 
extensive  ramifications  over  the  body.  There  are  similar  openings 
on  the  side  of  the  bee-worm  and  in  other  species.  If  these  are 
closed,  the  animal  immediately  dies.  In  all  the  lowest  classes  of 
animals,  and  even  as  high  as  the  class  of  reptiles,  the  skin  is  also 
an  active  respiratory  organ. 

What  has  been  said  may  render  intelligible  the  mechanism  by 


RESPIRATION.  119 

which  the  air  is  introduced  into  the  body.  It  will  now  be  necessary 
to  describe  the  changes  that  take  place  there.  The  atmospheric 
air,  when  it  goes  into  the  lungs,  is  composed  of  about  four  parts 
of  a  gas  called  nitrogen,  and  one  part  of  another  gas  called 
oxygen,  (a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air).  But 
the  air  which  comes  out  from  the  lungs  is  not  the  same  in  com- 
position, for  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxygen  is  found  to  have 
disappeared,  and  in  its  stead  we  find  another  gas,  called  carbonic 
acid,  which  is  produced  by  the  union  of  a  portion  of  oxygen  with 
the  carbon  which  forms  a  large  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  the 
blood  and  of  the  body  in  general.  Carbonic  acid  is  a  gas  which  is 
fatal  to  animal  life,  and  it  is  therefore  discharged  from  the  lungs. 
IT  an  animal  is  made  to  inhale  it,  insensibility  and  death  follow  in 
a  very  few  minutes.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  venous  blood 
is  equally  a  poison  to  the  animal  body,  and  it  is  this  same  carbon, 
or  charcoal,  that  makes  it  noxious.  It  appears  that  about  forty-five 
thousand  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  are  consumed  by  an  ordinary  man 
in  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  forty  thousand  inches  of  this  gas  go 
to  form  the  carbonic  acid  produced  during  the  same  period,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  oxygen  probably  combining  with  other  ingredients 
of  the  blood.  This  union  causes  animal  heat  similar  to  the 
burning  of  fuel.  If  so  the  lungs  and  arteries  are  a  fire-place  or 
stove  which  constantly  generate  heat.  Under  different  circum- 
stances, however,  the  consumption  of  oxygen  varies.  It  is  con- 
siderably greater  when  the  temperature  is  low  than  when  it  is  high, 
and  during  digestion  the  consumption  has  been  found  one-half 
greater  than  when  the  stomach  is  empty.  By  violent  exercise, 
when  the  stomach  is  empty,  it  has  been  found  to  be  augmented  to 
three  times  its  usual  quantity,  and  to  four  times  its  usual  quantity 
when  food  has  been  taken  after  this. 

When  we  thus  see  the  great  quantity  of  pure  atmospheric  air 
which  a  single  individual  requires  to  carry  off  the  noxious  parts  of 
the  venous  blood,  and  to  convert  this  into  arterial  blood,  we  can 
easily  comprehend  why  such  dreadful  consequences  should  follow 
the  breathing  of  a  highly  vitiated  atmosphere.  The  most  melan- 
choly instance  of  this  kind  on  record,  is  the  well-known  one  that 
occurred  in  the  Black  Hole  at  Calcutta.  In  this  dungeon, 
eighteen  feet  square,  and  having  only  two  small  windows  on  the 
same  side  to  admit  air,  one  hundred  and  forty-six  men  were  im- 
mured. In  six  hours  ninety-six  of  them  had  died  from  suffocation, 
after  the  most  horrible  sufferings ;  and  in  the  morning,  when  the 


120  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

doors  were  opened,  only  twenty-three  out  of  the  whole  number  re- 
mained alive. 

From  the  same  cause  we  can  understand  how  injurious  it  must  be 
continually  to  breathe  the  air  of  ill-ventilated  rooms,  confined  sleep- 
ing apartments,  crowded  low-roofed  schools,  or  other  places  in 
which  numbers  are  assembled  together,  and  where  ventilation  is  not 
particularly  attended  to.  A  long  continued  and  constant  residence 
in  such  places  most  certainly  shortens  life  by  several  years, 
and  not  unfrequently  terminates  it  rapidly  by  giving  rise  to  fatal 
disorders. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  from  what  has  been  said,  that 
the  carbon  separated  at  the  lungs  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  merely 
noxious  material.  If  it  were  retained,  death  would  undoubtedly 
take  place  ;  but  if  we  had  no  carbon  to  separate  we  shall  find  that 
the  heat  of  our  bodies  could  probably  not  be  maintained.  When 
charcoal  is  burned  in  atmospheric  air,  the  changes  which  occur 
seem  to  be  almost  precisely  similar  to  those  that  are  produced  by 
respiration.  Oxygen  disappears,  and  carbonic  acid  is  formed.  It 
seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  conclude,  that  the  heat  produced  in 
both  cases  is  connected  with  these  changes.  That  the  production 
of  animal  heat  bears  some  resemblance  to  combustion,  is  rendered 
probable  by  the  following  considerations  : — 1st,  It  has  been  deter- 
mined by  experiment  that  the  charcoal  contained  in  the  carbonic  acid 
formed  during  a  given  period  by  respiration,  would  give  out,  when 
burned,  fully  more  than  half  the  heat  produced  by  the  animal  in 
that  period.  It  takes  no  less  than  about  eleven  ounces  of  carbon 
to  form  the  carbonic  acid  of  an  ordinary  man's  daily  respiration. 
Dr.  Milne  Edwards  thinks  that  this,  and  the  superabundant  oxygen 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  blood  (which  probably  combines  in  great 
part  with  hydrogen  to  form  water),  will  account  for  nine-tenths 
oi  the  heat  an  animal  produces,  the  remaining  tenth  probably  being 
the  product  of  the  friction  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  the 
changes  occurring  in  secretion,  &c.  2dly,  This  view  is  supported 
by  the  fact,  that  the  temperature,  in  the  different  classes  of  animals, 
very  accurately  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed. 
The  temperature  of  birds  is  highest,  and  they  consume  most.  The 
young,  among  the  Mammalia,  consume  the  least,  and  have  the 
temperature  lowest.  Indeed,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  young 
of  most  of  the  Mammalia,  including  children,  have  much  difficulty 
in  supporting  any  degree  of  cold  when  separated  from  their 
parents  ;  and  where  incautious  exposure  takes  place,  the  mortality 


RESPIRATION.  121 

among  them  is  found  to  be  very  great.     Reptiles,  which  consume 

k.    little  oxygen,  have  a  temperature  only  a  few  degrees  above  the 

it  medium  in  which  they  live,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  fishes, 

•with  the  remarkable  exception  of  the  Cetacea  (whale,  porpoise,  &c.) 

•which  have  a  high  temperature,  but  consume  much  oxygen,  as  they 

breathe  air  by  lungs. 

But  it  may  be  said,  if  the  heat  of  the  body  is  produced  chiefly  by 
respiration,  why  have  the  lungs  not  the  temperature  of  a  furnace  7 
Several  reasons  may  be  assigned  why  this  should  not  be  so ;  and, 
1st,  it  must  be  recollected,  that,  even  though  a  considerable  portion 
of  heat  may  be  supposed  to  be  produced  in  the  lungs,  there  is  also 
a  constant  and  most  rapid  influx  of  cold  blood,  from  the  exposed 
parts  of  the  body,  into  these,  to  carry  off  the  heat  as  soon  as  it  is 
generated.*  Besides,  it  appears  pretty  certain  that  the  blood  com- 
ing from  the  lungs  is  really  a  degree  or  two  hotter  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  body.  2dly,  Dr.  Crawford  in  his  celebrated  Theory  of 
•Animal  Heat,  has  very  ingeniously  attempted  to  obviate  this  diffi- 
culty by  maintaining  that  the  capacity  for  heat  (as  chemists  call  it) 
is  greater  in  arterial  than  in  venous  blood ;  that  as  this  enlargement 
of  capacity  takes  place  at  the  same  moment,  and  in  the  same  place, 
as  the  heat  is  generated,  a  considerable  portion  of  it  must  be  ab- 
sorbed ;  and  that  this  latent  heat  comes  to  be  given  out  as  the 
arterial,  in  its  course,  is  again  gradually  converted  into  venous 
blood. 

The  correctness  of  Dr.  Crawford's  theory  has  been  doubted  by 
many  physiologists,  on  the  ground,  1st,  that  other  chemists  have 
not  found  the  capacities  of  arterial  and  venous  blood  to  correspond 
with  his  statements  ;  and,  2d,  that  it  has  been,  since  his  time,  ren- 
dered highly  probable,  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Edwards  and 
others,  that  a  considerable  portion,  at  least,  of  the  carbonic  acid 
produced  by  respiration,  is  formed,  not  in  the  lungs,  but  by  the 
blood  in  its  course,  and  is  merely  separated  or  given  off  at  the 
lungs.  Still,  many  of  the  most  eminent  physiologists  consider 
modifications  of  Dr.  Crawford's  theory  as  affording  the  best  explana- 

*  An  experiment  of  Mr.  Hunter's  shows  the  influence  of  the  circulation  in  keeping 
down  temperature.  A  living  part  (with  blood  circulating  through  it,  probably  near  98 
degrees)  was  placed  in  water  at  118  degrees,  and  had  its  temperature  elevated  to  102! 
degrees,  that  is,  only  3  or  4  degrees  above  the  natural  temperature  of  some  parts  of  the 
body  ;  while  a  dead  part,  under  the  same  circumstance,  rose  to  1 14  degrees,  or  about 
12  degrees  higher.  Mr.  Hunter  imputed  this  difference  to  the  influence  of  the  vital 
principle,  but  our  friend  Dr.  Holland  has  probably  given  a  more  correct  explanation, 
in  referring  it  to  the  comparatively  colder  fluid  that  circulated  in  the  living  part. 


122  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

tion  of  the  phenomena  of  animal  heat  that  we  at  present  possess. 
One  modification  of  this  theory  we  may  here  state.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  oxygen,  when  it  is  absorbed  by  the  blood  in  the 
lungs,  exists  there  only  in  a  loose  state  of  combination ;  that  as  it 
circulates,  the  union  with  the  carbon,  &c.,  of  the  blood,  becomes 
more  intimate ;  and  that  the  heat  comes  thus  to  be  gradually  dis- 
engaged, and  diffused  through  every  part  of  the  body.  For  further 
information  on  this  subject  we  must  refer  to  the  works  of  Drs.  Smith, 
Alison,  Bostock,  &c. ;  but  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  many 
facts,  which  our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  state,  prove  decisively  that 
the  nervous  system  is  connected,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  the  pro- 
duction of  animal  heat.  We  can  only  state  generally,  also,  that 
the  body  possesses  the  power  of  keeping  down  its  heat  to  nearly 
the  natural  standard,  even  when  exposed  to  a  very  high  tempera- 
ture. Sir  Charles  Blagden  remained,  without  any  great  incon- 
venience, in  a  room,  the  temperature  of  which  was  fifty -two  degrees 
above  that  of  boiling  water,  until  eggs  were  roasted  hard,  and  a 
beefsteak  made  ready  by  blowing  air  on  it.*  Indeed,  the  heat  of 
his  body,  though  the  temperature  of  the  apartment  was  264  degrees^ 
rose  only  three  or  four  degrees  above  ninety-eight  degrees,  its 
natural  standard.  It  has  been  found  that  the  principal  agent  in 
keeping  down  the  temperature,  is  the  immense  evaporation  that 
takes  place  from  the  lungs  and  skin.  Accordingly  when  the  skin 
is  varnished,  or  the  air  of  the  apartment  is  saturated  with  moisture, 
so  as  to  prevent  evaporation,  a  temperature  one-half  so  high  can 
hardly  be  borne. 

Having  now  given  a  short  but  connected  account  of  the  physi- 
ology of  respiration,  we  cannot  but  remark  how  varied  arid  how 
complicated  are  the  agents  employed,  and  yet  how  accurately  each 
of  these  performs  the  part  assigned  it.  Such  investigations  as  those 
with  which  we  have  been  occupied,  form  the  proper  foundations  of 
natural  religion.  No  one  can  rise  from  the  study  of  these  parts  of 
the  animal  frame,  without  intensely  feeling  that  design,  and  design 
of  a  kind  the  most  exquisite,  guides  every  motion  and  change  of 
the  vital  fluid.  Never  did  any  piece  of  machinery  invented  by 
man,  indicate  with  greater  precision  the  intentions  of  its  maker. 

The  voice  is  produced  in  what  is  called  the  larynx,  at  the  top  of 

the  windpipe.     The  air,  in  passing  through  its  opening  (glottis), 

causes  parts  called  vocal  ligaments  to  vibrate,  and  to  give  out  the 

different  varieties  of  sound.     These  sounds  can  be  further  modified 

*  Dr.  Chaubert,  of  this  city,  a  few  years  ago  practised  the  same  experiment. 


I 


RESPIRATION.  123 


by  the  parts  in  the  mouth,  &c.,  so  as  to  produce  articulate  speech. 
Singing-birds  have  a  simple  larynx  at  the  top,  and  a  complicated 
me  at  the  bottom  of  the  windpipe. 


f  DISEASES. 

When  foreign  bodies,  such  .as  cherry  or  plum  stones,  get  into  the 
•  larynx  or  windpipe,  they  cause  excessive  irritation,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  death.  A  few  years  ago,  a  child  swallowed  a  clasp,  one 
half  entered  the  windpipe,  the  other  the  gullet.  When  I  attended 
the  medical  lectures  in  the  old  Barclay  street  Medical  University, 
this  specimen,  preserved  in  spirits,  was  exhibited  to  our  class.  The 
professor  staled  that  the  foreign  body  might  have  easily  been  re- 
moved had  any  one  present  possessed  a  little  anatomical  know- 
ledge. 

Affections  of  the  top  of  the  windpipe  produces  suffocation,  and, 
among  these,  by  far  the  most  common  and  fatal,  is  croup.  This 
disearse  consists  in  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the  inner  or  mu- 
cous lining  of  the  larynx  and  windpipe. 

When  the  inner  or  mucous  membrane  of  a  few  of  the  larger 
knches  of  the  windpipe  is  slightly  inflamed,  it  is  called  a  common 
cold  ;  when  the  inflammation  is  greater  and  extends  to  the  lesser 
air-tubes  (bronchi),  it  is  called  bronchitis,  and  is  often  denoted  by 
considerable  wheezing  in  the  breathing;*  when  the  air- vesicles, 
and  the  substance  which  connects  them,  become  inflamed,  it  is 
called  inflammation  of  the  lungs  (pneumonia).  The  last  is  a  very 
fatal  disease,  if  not  early  checked.  The  importance  of  early  atten- 
tion to  it  will  be  understood  from  this,  that  it  consists  of  three 
stages,  in  the  first  of  which  the  part  of  the  lungs  affected  is  merely 
engorged  with  the  watery  serum  of  the  blood.  A  free  perspiration 
will  frequently  remove  this,.  But  if  allowed  to  remain,  this  rapidly 
passes  into  the  second  stage,  in  which  the  lung  becomes  solid,  like 
a  piece  of  liver  (hepatization\  and  ultimately  into  the  third  stage, 
when  the  solid  portion  is  infiltrated  with  matter  (pus).  The  two 
latter  stages  are  comparatively  seldom  recovered  from. 

When  the  membrane  (pleura)  covering  the  lungs  and  lining  the 

*  Millers,  masons,  sawyers,  grinders,  and  others  who  are  exposed  to  the  inhalations 
of  various  kinds  of  dust,  are  very  subject  to  this  disease,  and  have  their  lives  much 
shortened  by  it.  Dry  grinders  seldom  live  beyond  30  or  35  years.  In  M.  Lombard's 
returns  for  Geneva,  the  average  longevity  of  stone-cutters  is  stated  at  34  years,  of  sculp- 
tors at  36  years,  and  of  millers  at  42  years ;  while  painters  live,  on  an  average,  to  44, 
joiners  to  49,  butchers  53,  writers  to  51,  surgeons  to  54,  masons  to  55,  gardeners  to  60, 
merchants  to  62,  preachers  to  63,  and  magistrates  to  69  years. 


124  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

inside  of  the  chest  is  inflamed,  it  is  called  pleurisy  or  pleuritis,  and 
is  denoted  by  the  sharp  cutting  pain  which  is  felt  when  we  draw  a 
breath.  If  uncombined  with  pleuritis,  the  pain  in  pneumonia 
(inflammation  of  the  lungs)  is  not  great.  It  is  rather  tightness  of 
the  chest,  and  oppression  of  the  breathing,  that  are  felt.  These 
are  caused  by  the  difficulty  the  air  finds  in  getting  admission  into 
the  condensed  air-vesicles.  From  the  same  cause,  pneumonia  is 
generally  attended  by  rapid  heaving  and  breathing.  As  the  quan- 
tity of  air  that  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  blood  is  dimin- 
ished, fuller  and  more  frequent  inspirations  require  to  be  made.  If 
the  hepatization  extends  to  the  whole  of  one  lung,  then  there  can 
be  no  motion  of  the  chest  on  that  side,  as  the  air  enters  only  to 
other  lung.  These  signs  are  of  special  importance  in  children. 
Whenever  the  breathing  of  a  previously  healthy  child  becomes 
rapid  and  heaving,  alarm  should  be  felt  for  its  safety. 

The  branches  of  the  windpipe  have  another  coat  below  the  inner 
or  mucous  one,  which,  like  that  of  the  intestines,  is  muscular,  and 
can,  it  is  thought,  contract  and  diminish  their  size.  This  contrac- 
tion is  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  the  sudden  difficulty  in  breath^ 
ing,  so  often  felt  by  asthmatic  persons.  In  asthma,  however,  other 
causes  combine  to  produce  this  difficulty;  for,  1st,  there  is  generally 
more  or  less  habitual  inflammation  of  the  larger  air-tubes  ;  and, 
2dly,  from  the  repeated  violent  fits  of  coughing,  the  air-vesicles 
become  distended  or  ruptured,  so  that  the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  per- 
manently filled  to  a  considerable  extent  with  these  distended  vesi- 
cles (bullce).  The  surface  of  the  lungs  of  old  asthmatic  persons 
may  be  seen  studded  with  these,  like  little  bladders,  sometimes  as 
large  as  walnuts. 

The  only  other  disease  of  the  lungs  we  shall  notice,  is  the  almost 
invariably  fatal  one,  consumption  (phthisis  pulmonalis).  This  dis- 
ease consists  in  the  formation,  in  the  lungs,  of  a  peculiar  substance 
called  tubercle.  Tubercles  are  at  first  small  semi-transparent 
bodies,  like  pins'-heads ;  but  as  they  increase  in  size  and  number, 
they  unite,  and  form  masses  generally  like  yellowish  cheese,  occa- 
sionally as  large  as  a  walnut  or  an  orange.  At  a  later  period,  this 
cheesy  matter  becomes  softened,  and  is  coughed  up,  leaving  cavities 
in  the  lungs  more  or  less  extensive,  under  the  irritation  of  which 
the  patient  sinks.  Consumption,  from  very  accurate  calculations, 
is  known  to  cause  about  one  in  every  four  deaths  in  England  and 
North  America,  so  that  some  knowledge  of  the  causes  which  produce 
it,  is  important  to  almost  every  one.  From  extensive  statistical 


i 


I 


RESPIRATION.  125 

inquiries  made  in  Geneva  by  Dr.  Lombard,  he  has  found  that  the 
average  number  of  consumptive  cases  occurring  in  all  the  different 
professions  of  that  town,  is  114  in  the  1000.  In  some  it  rises 
much  above,  while  in  others  it  falls  greatly  below,  this  average 
number.  Thus,  among  varnish-painters  no  less  than  37  out  of  the 
100  were  found  to  have  died  of  this  complaint,  while  of  gardeners 
only  4  in  the  100  fell  a  sacrifice  to  it.  The  causes  which  princi- 
pally tend  to  produce  consumption,  Dr.  Lombard  finds,  are,  1st, 

Jwreathing  air  in  which  mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal  powders  are 

floating  :    among    polishers,    sculptors,    stone-cutters,    plasterers, 

(rSfeh -hand-makers,  &c.,  the  proportion  of  consumptive  complaints 

^ffv7  in  the  1000.  2d,  Sedentary  occupations  seem  to  have  a 
great  effect  in  producing  this  disease,  the  mortality  among  clerks, 
printers,  tailors,  engravers,  &c.,  being  141  in  the  1000;  while 
among  such  active  professions  as  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  slaters, 
agriculturists,  &c.,  the  average  proportion  is  89  in  the  1000.  3d, 
Indigent  persons  seem  about  twice  more  liable  to  consumption  than 
those  living  in  easy  circumstances  :  annuitants  in  Geneva,  who  may 

Bfe  reckoned  as  generally  leading  an  easy,  comfortable  life,  average 
only  50  consumptive  persons  in  the  1000.  ,  4th,  The  more  or  less 
impure  state  of  the  air  breathed,  its  temperature,  dryness,  &c.,  seem 
to  influence  considerably  the  production  of  consumption.  In  pro- 
fessions in  which  life  is  spent  in  shops  or  manufactories,  the  pro- 
portion of  cases  is  138  in  the  1000  ;  while  in  those  professions  in 
which  life  is  spent  principally  in  the  open  air,  only  73  in  the  1000 
•bme  its  victims.  An  atmosphere  loaded  with  animal  emana- 
tes, such  as  is  breathed  by  butchers,  tanners,  candlemakers,  &c., 
seems  to  act  rathei*  as  a  preventive  to  this  complaint,  the  average 
among  these  professions  being  only  60  in  the  1000.  Breathing  a 
moist  air  seems  also  a  preventive  circumstance,  as  weavers,  dyers, 
Meachers,  watermen,  &c.,  are  found  liable  to  it  only  in  the  propor- 
tion of  53  in  the  1000 ;  while  those  who  breathe  a  hot  dry  air,  such 
as  toolmakers,  enamellers,  file-smiths,  &c.,  have  127  in  the  1000 
affected.  These  deductions  may  be  considered  as,  at  least,  approxi- 
mations to  the  truth,  and  they  in  general  agree  with  what  might 
have  been  expected,  as  we  know  that  even  in  the  lower  animals 
consumption  can  be  produced  at  pleasure  by  general  debilitating 
causes,  or  by  irritants  applied  directly  to  the  lungs.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  monkeys  brought  from  their  own  warm  to  this  cold 
and  changeable  climate,  die  of  this  scourge  of  our  race ;  and  M. 
Flourens,  a  French  physiologist,  has  shown,  that  by  keeping 


126  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

chickens  in  a  dark  and  damp  cellar,  and  upon  a  scanty  diet,  they 
are  rapidly  carried  off  by  this  affection.  Though  the  lungs  are  th 
parts  most  usually  affected  by  this  disease,  it  is  a  mistake  to  su 
pose  that  it  is  a  merely  local  complaint.  Very  commonly,  th 
cheesy  matter  is  found,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  liver,  mesentery 
and  many  other  parts  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  essen- 
tial cause  of  the  whole  is  a  particular  form  of  constitution,  either 
inherent  from  parents,  or  brought  on  by  irregular  habits,  want  of 
fresh  air  and  exercise,  or  other  diseases  and  circumstances  that 
enfeeble  the  body.  Where  the  predisposition  to  this  disease  is 
very  great,  we  see  whole  families  cut  off  by  it;  but  when  the  pre- 
disposition is  less,  we  often  notice  only  those  affected  that  follow 
occupations,  or  have  contracted  habits,  that  impair  their  health.* 
The  woeful  system  of  quackery  pursued  by  our  popular  doctors,  con- 
sisting of  bleeding  and  mercury,  is  another  fruitful  source  of  pulmo- 
nary diseases. 

The  mechanism  of  respiration  may  be  beautifully  seen  in  the 
rabbit.     After  skinning,  &c.,  open  the  belly,  take  out  the  intes- 
tines, liver,  &c.,  and  cut  through  the  spine  high  up  with  a  strong 
knife.     The  diaphragm,  separating  the  belly  from  the  chest.J 
then  be  seen.     To  show  the  parts  contained  in  the  chest,  next  take 
away  the  fore-legs,  and  cautiously  detach  the  ribs  from  the  breast 
bone,  on  each  side,  except  at  the  top  and  bottom,  breaking  or  cut- 

*  We  have  said  that  consumption  is  a  hereditary  disease,  or  arises  from  a  peculiar 
constitution  transmitted  from  parents  to  children.  This  is  what  is  called  the  scrofulous 
constitution,  which  can  often  be  detected  by  a  practised  observer,  but  of  which  it  is  not 
easy  to  give  any  definition,  except  that  the  formation  of  tubercular  (cheesy)  matter  in 
any  part  always  denotes  it.  When  much  developed,  and  when  it  affects  the  glands  of 
the  neck,  it  is  vulgarly  termed  "  king's  evil."  Constitutions  are  variously  tainted  with 
it,  however,  from  a  very  slight  to  a  very  high  degree ;  and  it  may  easily  be  conceived 
how  generally  the  taint  is  diffused,  when  we  have  stated  that  one  in  every  four  or  five 
dies  in  this  country  from  one  of  its  forms.  There  are  many  other  diseases,  the  tendency 
to  which  is  derived  from  parents,  such  as  asthma,  insanity,  gout,  &c. ;  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  this  class  of  diseases  constitutes  the  great  bar  to  the  physical  improve- 
ment of  the  human  stock.  Until  correct  views  on  this  subject  become  more  general, 
little  hope  of  improvement  can  be  entertained.  At  present,  persons  in  every  rank  make 
eager  inquiries  as  to  the  worldly  condition,  &c.,  of  those  who  are  likely  to  form  their 
partners  for  life;  but  how  seldom  does  it  happen  that  the  tendency  to  even  serious 
hereditary  disease  forms  a  bar  to  their  union,  or  that  persons  even  take  the  least  pains 
to  satisfy  themselves  where  such  exists !  The  great  part  of  mankind  neglect  far  too 
much  the  fact  that  they  are  animals,  and  that  they  are  therefore  subject  to  those  general 
laws  which  regulate  the  transmission  of  peculiarities  or  diseases  to  their  children. 
Hence,  from  this  serious  error,  they  fail  to  take  the  precautions  which  are  necessary  to 
secure  an  approach  towards  physical  perfection  in  their  own  progeny,  the  neglect  of 
which  they  would  be  ashamed  of,  even  in  regard  to  their  dogs  and  their  horses. 


! 


RESPIRATION. 


127 


ting  through  with  scissors  the  detached  ribs  near  the  breast-bone, 
d  removing  them.  The  breast-bone  will  thus  be  left  in  its  place, 
upported  by  a  rib  or  two  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  the  division 
f  the  chest  into  two  halves  by  the  pleura — the  heart  lying  in  its 
ag  or  pericardium — as  well  as  the  appearance  and  position  of  the 
lungs,  will  be  seen.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  opening  into 
the  chest,  and  in  cutting  the  ribs  posteriorly,  not  to  injure  the 
lungs.  To  show  the  action  of  the  lungs,  the  windpipe  must  now 
be  cut  down  upon  in  the  neck,  cut  through,  and  detached,  and  a 
small  tube  tied  into  it.  When  this  is  gently  blown  into,  the  lungs 
will  be  seen  to  be  inflated.  A  much  more  elegant  mode  of  showing 
their  action,  however,  is,  carefully  to  take  out  both  windpipe  and 
lungs,  and  to  attach  them  as  represented  in  the  following  figure, 


c- 


Rabbit's  lungs  in  a  bottle. 

where  a  is  a  bottle,  six  or  seven  inches  high,  and  about  three  wide, 
such  as  is  used  by  druggists,  with  the  bottom  cut  off;  b  is  the  rab- 
bit's lungs  (with  the  windpipe  left  moderately  long)  tied  to  a 
notched  tin  tube  (c),  that  passes  through  a  cork  accurately  fitting 
the  neck  of  the  bottle ;  d  is  a  wooden  piston,  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick,  covered  with  soft  leather,  which  is  stuffed  with  hair, 
and  oiled  to  make  it  fit  accurately.  When  the  handle  of  the  piston 
is  drawn  quickly  down,  the  air  rushes  by  the  tube  and  windpipe 
into  the  lungs,  and  inflates  them,  and  this  can  be  repeated  by  push- 
ing the  piston  gently  up,  and  then  again  drawing  it  quickly  down. 
The  bottle  must  be  of  the  same  width  throughout,  and  the  lungs 
must  not  be  cut  or  injured  in  any  part.  The  lungs  should  be  in  the 
bottle,  and  the  windpipe  tied  on  the  tube,  before  the  cork  is  fitted 
into  the  bottle.  This  is  a  remarkably  striking  experiment,  and 
should  be  seen  by  every  one  who  wishes  to  form  a  just  conception 
of  respiration.  A  pig's  bladder  will  answer  very  well  to  show  the 
nature  of  respiration.  A  beautiful  experiment  may  be  performed  by 
procuring  of  a  butcher  a  sound  pair  of  calf's  lungs,  or  lights,  in 


128  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

troduce  a  tube,  and  blow  them  up  or  inflate  them.     They  suddenly 
expand,   change  their  color,  and  present  a  very  imposing  effectjJB 
Every  vessel  but  the  trachea  must  be  tied. 

In  my  popular  lectures  on  Physiology  and  the  reformed  practiceS 
I  repeatedly  tried  this  interesting  experiment.     The  boy  who  in-^ 
flated  the  lung  used  no  tube,  but  put  the  end  of  the  windpipe  into 
his  mouth.     His  stomach  was  not  very  delicate.     I  have  a  model 
in  wax  by  the  best  artist  of  the  lungs,  in  connexion  with  the  heart, 
which  is  extremely  beautiful. 

The  power  of  oxygen  in  supporting  combustion,  and  of  carbonic 
acid  in  extinguishing  it,  should  also  be  shown  by  introducing  a 
lighted  candle,  fixed  to  a  wire,  into  jars  of  these  gases. 

That  the  expired  air  contains  carbonic  acid,  may  easily  be  shown 
by  breathing  through  a  tube  immersed  in  newly  prepared  lime  water. 
The  carbonic  acid  throws  down  the  lime  in  the  form  of  carbonate 
of  lime. 

By  placing  the  ear  to  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  of  a  young  per- 
son, the  murmur  produced  by  the  air  rushing  through  the  air- 
vesicles  may  be  heard  ;  or  the  stethoscope  may  be  used  for  hearing 
this,  as  well  as  the  sounds  of  the  heart. 

Preparations  of  the  bronchial  tubes  are  generally  made  by  anato- 
mists with  wax.  These,  however,  have  the  disadvantage  of  being 
easily  broken.  There  may  be  used,  instead  of  wax,  some  of  the 
metals.  Equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead  answer  well  for  the  larger 
bronchi.  Take  a  sheep's  lungs,  clear  away  fat,  &c.,  but  taking 
care  not  to  injure  them,  and  cut  off  the  windpipe  three  or  four 
inches  above  the  lungs ;  dry  the  interior  of  the  windpipe  by  BRro- 
ducing  pieces  of  lint  on  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  afterwards  allowing  it 
to  remain  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  hours.  Then  transfix  the 
windpipe  at  the  upper  part  with  two  darning-needles  crossed,  to 
hang  the  lungs  by ;  fasten  the  needles  to  the  ring  of  a  retort-stand ; 
fasten  a  wide-mouthed  tin  funnel,  supported  by  another  ring  of  the 
retort,  in  the  windpipe,  and  pour  in  the  melted  metal ;  boil  the 
lungs  for  two  hours,  cut  out  the  preparation,  and  varnish  with  wax 
dissolved  in  boiling  spirits  of  wine.  A  much  more  delicate  pre- 
paration can  be  made  in  the  following  manner : — Instead  of  tin  and 
lead,  take  the  composition  called  the  fusible  metal ,*  and  pour  it  into 
the  lungs,  and  then  place  these  in  a  large  pot  of  water,  to  be  kept 
boiling  for  an  hour.  The  air  is  thus,  in  a  measure,  expelled  ;  and 

*  The  Fusibk  Metal  may  be  composed  of  two  parts  bismuth,  one  lead,  one  tin,  and 
one  quicksilver,  to  be  all  melted  together  and  well  mixed. 


RESPIRATION.  129 

as  the  metal  melts  at  the  boiling  point  of  water,  it  finds  its  way 
into  the  most  minute  ramifications.  When  heated,  the  air  in  the 
air-tubes  causes  the  lungs  to  become  buoyant,  which  prevents  the 
metal  getting  properly  into  the  lower  bronchi.  To  obviate  this, 
the  lungs  may  be  enveloped  in  a  cloth,  which  should  be  loaded  with 
heavy  weights,  to  keep  them  in  the  upright  position.  As  the  metal 
is  extremely  brittle  when  hot,  the  lungs  should  not  be  taken  out  of 
the  pot  till  they  are  cold ;  then  hang  them  in  some  place  where 
flies  can  deposit  their  eggs,  moistening  the  outside  daily,  and  allow 
them  to  remain  until  the  maggots  eat  away  all  the  flesh  ;  after  this, 
hang  them  in  water  until  the  preparation  can  be  easily  cleaned. 
In  making  both  preparations,  about  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  metal 
vtt  required,  and  the  tin  filler  should  be  heated  to  make  the  metal 
run  the  easier.  If  any  of  the  large  branches  are  broken,  any  tin- 
smith will  easily  solder  them.  When  well  managed,  preparations 
made  in  this  way  have  a  truly  wonderful  appearance ;  the 
bronchial  tubes,  though  beautifully  distinct,  and  as  fine  as  hairs, 
presenting  almost  a  solid  mass.  The  existence  of  air-vesicles  has 
Jieen  doubted  by  some  authors,  and  these  preparations  seem  to  sup- 
port this  opinion. 

BDther  illustrative  figures  for  this  section  will  be  found  in  Bell's 
Anatomy,  vol.  i.,  page  699  ;  Dr.  Smith's  Philosophy  of  Health, 
vol.  i.,  p.  243  ;  "  Animal  Physiology,"  in  the  Library  of  Useful 
Knowlege,  pp.  88,  89,  92,  &c.,  &c. 

MEDICAL   TREATMENT    AND    REGIMEN. 

aving  given  a  description  of  the  structure,  physiology,  and 
iseases  of  the  lungs,  I  will  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  medical 
treatment  and  regimen  of  pulmonary  disease,  being  the  most  com- 
mon complaints  of  these  organs.  It  is  a  melancholy  fact,  that 
diseases  of  the  lungs  cause  greater  mortality  than  all  others  to- 
gether, particularly  in  all  northern  climates.  In  this  country  and 
in  England,  about  one-fourth  or  fifth  adult  persons  are  taken  off  by 
consumption,  the  causes  of  which  are  various,  principally  sudden 
changes  of  the  weather,  which  is  exceedingly  great,  even  not  un- 
frequently  during  a  single  day.  This  checks  the  secretion  of  the 
skin,  and  retains  deleterious  agents,  which  become  a  source  of  irri- 
tation ;  and  in  addition  to  which  that  immense  amount  of  blood 
which  is  constantly  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  body,  particu- 
larly the  surface  or  skin,  is  forced  inwardly  by  the  refrigeratory 
influence  of  cold,  and  closes  the  capillary  vessels,  and  drives  the 
9 


130  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

blood  back  from  their  original  channels  to  the  internal  organs  of 
the  system.  This  consequently  engorges  or  congests  them,  and 
brings  on  inflammation,  and  perhaps  ulceration,  which  may  prove 
fatal ;  and  especially  so  if  there  be  any  predisposition  to  scrofula  or 
tubercular  state  of  the  lungs.  Nearly  every  complaint  of  the  kind 
can  be  traced  to  what  is  commonly  called  "  colds."* 

It  is  also  more  to  be  regretted  that  notwithstanding  all  our  re- 
searches, we  have  not  been  able  to  discover  a  remedy  for  confirmed 
tubercular  consumption.  I  know  that  it  is  sometimes  removed  in 
the  incipient  state,  and  even  when  apparently  there  has  been  no 
prospect  of  recovery ;  but  this  forms  only  exceptions  to  a  general 
rule.  Every  philanthropic  physician  then  should  exert  all  his 
abilities  to  investigate  the  pathology  or  nature  of  this  disease,  and 
find  a  cure.  "  Who  knows,"  says  Dr.  Rush,  "  but  there  grows  a 
plant  at  the  foot  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  that  will  prove  a 
remedy  for  consumption?"  Notwithstanding  the  discouraging 
aspect,  much  may  be  done  both  to  prevent  and  to  cure.  To  accom- 
plish the  first,  avoid  every  exciting  cause,  and  especially  a  check 
of  perspiration,  which  is  the  great  and  first  cause  of  it.  As  pneuj 
monia,  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  usually  ushers  in  the  corjH 
plaint,  it  must  be  either  reduced  or  moderated  by  attention  to  the 
secretions  and  excretions  of  the  system,  counter-irritants,  &c. 
Bleeding  must  by  no  means  be  resorted  to ;  it  only  has  a  tendency 
to  exasperate  the  symptoms  by  abstracting  that  vital  fluid  on  which 
the  restorative  success  depends.  If  the  disease  has  become  seated, 
strong  tonics,  expectorants,  and  sedatives  are  indicated.  Horseback 
exercise  is  a  powerful  means  of  recovery.  Bathe  the  surface  daily 
with  cold  weak  ley-water,  followed  by  friction.  This  is  a  valuable 
auxiliary,  especially  to  remove  that  predisposition  to  those  frequent 
coughs  which  precede  the  disease.  The  artificial  asses'  milk  men- 
tioned in  my  Medical  Dictionary,  under  the  head,  I  think,  of  Sea 
Holly,  has  been  highly  extolled  by  a  physician  who  used  it  very 
extensively,  and  it  is  said  was  invariably  successful  in  its  treatment. 
The  diet  should  be  nutritious  ;  milk,  warm  from  the  cow,  is  excel- 
lent. A  sea  voyage  and  a  change  of  climate  sometimes  is  attended 

*  The  barbarous  Chinese  custom  of  contracting  the  feet  of  women,  and  the  great 
extent  to  which  their  irrational  purpose  is  accomplished,  are  well  known.  While  the 
Europeans  were  expressing  their  surprise  at  such  an  absurdity,  and  pitying  the  suf- 
ferers, they  were  constantly  permitting  under  their  own  eyes  the  equally,  if  not  more 
pernicious  practice  of  tight  stays ;  by  which  I  have  seen  the  figure  of  the  thorax  com- 
pletely and  permanently  altered  at  its  lower  part— a  great  cause  of  consumption,  by 
impeding  the  motion  of  the  lungs. 


RESPIRATION.  131 

with  a  salutary  effect.  The  best  climate  is  the  Brazils,  at  Para, 
situate  on  the  river  Amazon.  An  excellent  preventative  for 
chronic  bronchial  affections  is  the  application,  two  or  three  times 
a  day,  of  cold  water  to  the  neck  and  chest,  followed  by  friction  with 
a  coarse  towel.  The  irritating  plaster  is  also  very  valuable.  For 
more  particular  medical  treatment,  see  my  Reformed  Practice. 
Also  for  other  diseases  of  the  lungs. 

The  Stethoscope  has  of  late  become  very  common  -among  phy- 
sicians in  forming  a  diagnosis  or  opinion  of  pulmonary  diseases.  I 
have  very  little  confidence  in  it  myself.  Lugol,  of  Paris,  has  the 
following  remarks  on  the  use  of  it : — 

^  The  numerous  checks  and  repeated  deception  to  which  phy- 
sicians are  daily  exposed  in  the  DIAGNOSIS  and  TREATMENT  of  tu- 
berculous diseases,  do  they  not  prove  that  it  is  necessary  to  leave 
the  beaten  track  of  inquiry  and  pursue  some  other  which  is  less 
fallible  1  You  all  know  that  auscultation  and  percussion  are  use- 
less in  the  diagnosis  of  pulmonary  tubercles.  Both  alike  insuffi- 
cient to  announce  the  commencement  of  the  mischief,  they  are 
superfluous  at  the  very  time  that  they  become  capable  of  indicating 
the  presence  of  the  tubercles ;  for  then  these  are  discoverable  by 
other  means,  and,  alas  !  are  too  far  advanced  in  their  development 
to  warrant  our  hopes  of  arresting  their  progress — at  least  in  the 
generality  of  cases.  I  will  even  go  a  step  further,  and  say  that  the 
unlimited  confidence  placed  by  the  greater  number  of  practitioners 
of  the  present  day  in  auscultation  and  percussion,  has  had  the  effect 
of  too  often  inspiring  a  fatal  security  in  many  tuberculous  diseases, 
which  are  thereby  allowed  to  advance  in  their  progress,  until  this 
is  revealed  by  physical  phenomena  at  a  period  when  remedial  mea- 
sures have  but  little  chance  of  effecting  any  good. 

"  But  what  are  the  means,  you  will  say  to  me,  that  are  to  be  sub- 
stituted in  the  room  of  auscultation  and  percussion?  I  answer, 
gentlemen,  induction.  Examine  by  these  boasted  methods  this 
patient,  and  tell  me  what  results  you  obtain.  Negative  results, 
you  will  reply.  And  yet  I  maintain  that  he  is  tuberculous ;  for  his 
father,  his  mother,  and  his  brothers  have  all  died  of  tuberculous 
disease  ;  and  he  himself  is  affected  with  it  in  his  chest  at  the  pre- 
sent moment.  Believe  me,  this  plan  is  much  less  deceptive  than 
the  other  one.  I  tell  you,  the  inductive  method  cannot  mislead 
you,  for  nature  is  invariable  in  its  causes  as  in  its  effects  ;  and  the 
external  signs  of  tuberculous  scrofula  must  give  you  assurance  that 


132  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

similar  morbid  productions  exist  in  internal  organs,  especially  in 
the  lungs. 

"  It  is  by  viewing  the  question  from  this  elevated  point  of  view, 
by  studying  it  in  all  its  ensemble,  that  you  will  be  best  enabled  to 
comprehend  it  in  its  details  ;  and  these  cannot  be  understood  by  the 
special  methods  of  examination  which  have  been  so  much  recom- 
mended of  late  years. 

"  The  tubercularization  of  internal  organs  exhibits  in  its  develop- 
ment the  same  phenomena  as  tubercles  which  are  outwardly  situ- 
ated— there  is  no  pain,  and  nothing  of  mechanical  derangement. 

"  The  existence  of  tubercles  in  the  lungs  is  so  frequent,  that  I 
must  admit  that  they  are  present  in  all  scrofulous  persons.  You 
know  that  all,  or  almost  all,  patients,  who  have  pulmonary  tuber- 
cles, are,  or  have  been  at  some  time,  affected  with  tubercles  in  the 
neck ;  the  majority  have  had  during  infancy  this  external  sign  of 
scrofula ;  while  others  have  had  it  at  a  later  period  of  life.  I  be- 
lieve that  pulmonary  tubercles  frequently  exist  in  early  youth  ;  but  it 
is  chiefly  about  the  age  of  puberty  that  they  are  apt  to  be  developed." 

A  person  in  this  city  informs  me  that  he  has  derived  great  benefit 
for  a  seated  cough  by  breathing  through  an  ivory  tube  with  a 
small  aperture  at  the  end  to  allow  the  air  to  pass  through  slowly, 
that  the  lungs  may  become  expanded  and  exercised. 

Says  Lawrence  on  Man  :  "  The  accumulation  of  numbers  in 
large  cities,  the  noxious  effects  of  impure  air,  sedentary  habits,  and 
unwholesome  employments  ; — the  excesses  in  diet,  the  luxurious 
food,  the  heating  drinks,  the  monstrous  mixtures,  and  the  pernicious 
seasonings,  which  stimulate  and  oppress  the  organs, — the  unnatural 
activity  of  the  great  cerebral  circulation,  excited  by  the  double  im- 
pulse of  our  luxurious  habits  and  undue  mental  exertions,  of  the 
violent  passions  which  agitate  and  exhaust  us,  the  anxiety,  chagrin, 
and  vexation,  from  which  few  entirely  escape,  and  then  re-acting 
on  and  disturbing  the  whole  frame ; — the  delicacy  and  sensibility  to 
external  influences,  caused  by  our  heated  rooms,  warm  clothing, 
inactivity,  and  other  indulgences,  are  so  many  fatal  proofs  that  our 
most  grievous  ills  are  our  own  work,  and  might  be  obviated  by  a 
more  simple  and  uniform  way  of  life.  Our  associates  of  the  animal 
kingdom  do  not  escape  the  influence  of  such  causes.  The  moun- 
tain shepherd  and  his  dog  are  equally  hardy,  and  form  an  instruc- 
tive contrast  with  a  nervous  and  hysterical  fine  lady,  and  her  lap- 
dog  ; — the  extreme  point  of  degeneracy  and  imbecility  of  which 
each  race  is  susceptible." 


CIRCULATION.  133 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

CIRCULATION. 

I  WILL  commence  this  subject  with  a  description  of  the  heart  and 
blood-vessels,  and  then  describe  the  circulation. 

In  all  those  animals  which  most  resemble  man  (anatomically), 
such  as  the  monkey,  the  dog,  horse,  ox,  &c.,  the  heart  is-  placed 
between  the  two  lungs,  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  which  anatomists 
call  the  thorax. 

The  general  form  of  the  heart  is  that  of  an  inverted  cone,  the 
apex  down,  and  a  little  to  the  left.  The  size  of  the  heart  is 
very  nearly  that  of  the  fist  of  the  individual  to  whom  it  belongs. 

This  organ  is  enveloped  in  a  double  membranous  sac,  called 
pericardium,  and  is  suspended  in  the  pericardium  by  the  vessels 
which  arise  from  its  superior  and  enlarged  extremity ;  but  it  does 
not  adhere  at  any  other  point  of  its  surface  to  the  neighboring 
parts. 

The  substance  of  the  heart  is  almost  entirely  fleshy ;  it  is  a  hol- 
low muscle,  the  cavity  of  which  communicates  with  the  arteries 
and  veins. 

In  man  and  all  the  mammalia,  as  well  as  birds,  it  has  four  dis- 
tinct cavities.  A  thick,  vertical  partition  divides  it  into  two  halves, 
each  one  forming  two  cavities,  one  above  the  other  ;  a  ventricle,  and 
an  auricle. 

The  two  ventricles  occupy  the  inferior  part  of  the  heart,  and  do 
not  communicate  with  each  other,  but  each  one  opens  into  the 
auricle  above  it. 

The  heart,  then,  may  be  described  as  a  hollow  muscle,  which,  in 
birds  and  mammalia,  as  in  man,  is  divided  into  four  distinct  cham- 
bers, as  shown  in  the  following  figure.  This  division  is  effected 


134  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

Superior    Pulm.  Pulmonary 

vena  cava.    art.     Aorta,    artery. 

•" '  Pulmonary  veins. 

Pulmonary  veins.  ^..TM^^jJ^y^^J^  .-  Left  auricle. 
Eight  auricle.  ^•^fflW^  ****  ^ 
Tricuspid  valve.   '"' 
Inferior  vena. cava.    -'-  W\3J|  I HV/- Left  ventricle. 


Right  ventricle.  ,  . 

Partition.       Aorta. 

by  a  strong  vertical  partition,  that  divides  the  entire  heart  into  two 
halves,  which  are  almost  exactly  similar  to  each  other,  excepting 
in  the  greater  thickness  of  the  walls  on  the  left  side ;  and  each  of 
these  halves  (which  do  not  communicate  with  one  another)  is  again 
subdivided  by  a  transverse  partition,  into  two  cavities,  of  which  the 
upper  one  is  termed  the  auricle^  and  the  lower  the  ventricle.  Thus 
we  have  the  right  and  left  auricles,  and  the  right  and  left  ventricles. 
Each  communicates  with  its  corresponding  ventricle,  by  an  aperture 
in  the  transverse  partition,  which  is  guarded  by  a  valve.  The  walls 
of  the  ventricles  are  much  thicker  than  those  of  the  auricles  ;  and 
for  this  evident  reason, — that  the  ventricles  have  to  propel  the 
blood,  by  their  contraction,  through  a  system  of  remote  vessels ; 
whilst  the  auricles  have  only  to  transmit  the  fluid  that  has  been 
poured  into  them  by  the  veins,  into  the  ventricles,  which  dilate 
themselves  to  receive  it.  The  comparative  thickness  of  the  walls 
of  the  left  and  right  ventricles  is  explainable  on  the  same  principle  ; 
for  the  left  ventricle  has  to  send  the  blood,  by  its  contractile 
power,  through  the  remotest  parts  of  the  body  ;  whilst  the  right 
has  only  to  transmit  it  through  the  lungs,  which,  being  much 
nearer,  require  a  far  less  amount  of  force  for  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  them. 

We  are  thus  brought,  then,  to  consider  a  second  important  depart- 
ment of  our  science,  the  circulation  of  the  blood ;  but,  first,  it  is 
necessary  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  blood  itself. 

With  the  appearance  of  blood,  as  it  occurs  in  the  higher  classes 
of  animals,  every  one  is  familiar.  When  drawn  from  one  of  the 
vessels  which  immediately  receive  it  from  the  heart,  and  which  are 
called  arteries,  it  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  color  ;  but  when  taken,  as  it 
usually  is  in  the  common  operation  of  bleeding,  from  a  vein,  it  is 


CIRCULATION.  135 

much  darker,  being  of  the  shade  called  by  painters  Modena  red. 
When  first  drawn  from  the  vessel,  it  is  a  somewhat  glutinous  and 
apparently  homogeneous  fluid,  but,  after  standing  for  a  short  time, 
it  separates  into  two  parts,  one  a  watery  part,  called  the  serum,  the 
other  a  more  solid  part,  called  the  clot,  or  crassamentum.  The 
serum  is  chiefly  composed  of  water,  with  a  considerable  quantity 
of  the  same  substance  as  the  white  of  the  egg  (albumen)  dissolved 
in  it ;  so  that,  if  it  is  exposed  to  a  boiling  heat,  this  coagulates  and 
makes  the  whole  solid.  The  clot,  again,  likewise  consists  of  two 
principal  substances,  one  of  which  gives  it  the  red  color,  and,  by 
repeated  washings,  can  easily  be  separated  from  the  other,  which  is 
a  white,  tough,  fibrous  matter.  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  fibrin, 
and  is  said  to  be  nearly  identical  in  composition  with  the  part  that 
gives  contractility  to  the  muscles.* 

Although  the  blood  in  all  animals  appears  to  be  of  essentially 
the  same  nature,  separating  when  out  of  their  bodies  into  a  solid 
and  a  serous  part,  yet,  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  lower  classes, 
it  has  not  the  same  florid  appearance  Which  it  assumes  in  most  of 
the  Vertebrata.  Thus,  in  insects,  this  fluid  is  nearly  transparent, 
while  in  the  caterpillar  it  has  a  greenish  hue.  In  fishes,  again,  it  is 
transparent  in  the  bulk  of  the  body,  but  it  has  a  red  color  in  the 
gills,  heart,  and  liver  ;  and  even  in  the  human  body,  some  textures, 
as  the  transparent  parts  of  the  eye,  circulate  only  a  colorless  fluid. 
In  certain  diseased  states  of  the  system,  indeed,  nearly  the  whole 
blood  becomes  colorless. 

When  the  blood  is  examined  with  a  microscope,  its  florid  color  is 
perceived  to  arise  from  the  numberless  extremely  minute  red 
globules  suspended  in  the  watery  serum.  These  have,  in  every 
species  where  they  exist,  a  determinate  size  and  form,  being  in 
man  of  a  circular  flattened  shape,  and  from  the  three-thousandth  to 
the  five-thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  they  get  progressively  larger,  assuming  at  the  same  time 
an  elliptical  form.  Their  number  corresponds  very  constantly  to 
the  temperature  of  the  animal,  and  hence  the  two  divisions  of  warm 
and  cold-blooded.  In  birds  the  red  globules  constitute,  in  general, 

*  The  following,  made  by  M.  Le  Canu,  is  the  most  recent  analysis  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  human  blood :— Water,  786.500 ;  albumen,  69.415;  fibrin,  3.555;  coloring 
matter,  119.626;  crystallizable  fatty  matter,  4.300 ;  oily  matter,  2.270;  extractive  mat- 
ter, soluble  in  alcohol  and  water,  1.920 ;  albumen  combined  with  soda,  2.010 ;  chloruret 
of  sodium  and  potassium,  alkaline  phosphate,  sulphate  and  subcarbonate,  7.304;  subcar- 
bonate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  phosphates  of  lime,  magnesia  and  iron,  peroxide  of  iron, 
1.414;  loss,  2.586.  Total,  1000. 


136  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

about  fourteen  or  fifteen  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  whole  mass,  in 
man  twelve  or  thirteen  per  cent.,  and  both  of  these  are  warm- 
blooded animals.  The  red  globules  in  fishes  (which  are  cold- 
blooded, or  only  slightly  warmer  than  the  water  in  which  they  live) 
amount  to  about  five  or  six  per  cent.  It  is  also  stated  that  these 
globules  are  in  general  more  numerous  in  the  blood  of  men  than  in 
that  of  females,  and  in  persons  of  a  sanguine  than  in  those  of  a 
lymphatic  temperament. 

One  of  the  most  singular  properties  of  blood,  is  its  power  of  co- 
agulating. It  has  been  supposed  that  the  globules  of  blood  are 
really  vesicles  or  bags,  the  outer  portion  of  which  is  composed  of  red 
coloring  matter,  while  the  centre  consists  of  fibrin  ;  and  that,  during 
coagulation,  the  vesicle  is  burst,  and  the  particles  of  fibrin  adhere 
to  each  other.  But  it  has  been  more  recently  shown,  by  the  ex- 
periments of  Babington  and  Miiller,  that  the  fibrin  is  riot  contained 
in  the  red  globules,  but  in  the  fluid  part  of  the  blood  in  which  they 
float.  When  inflammation  exists,  the  separation  of  the  two  parts 
is  most  complete,  the  yellow  or  upper  buffy  layer  being  the  fibrin. 
Much  beautiful  design,  as  Dr.  Prout  remarks,  is  probably  concealed 
under  this  arrangement.  One  object  of  it  is  evident.  If  the  blood 
did  not  coagulate,  the  existence  of  animals  would  be  most  precari- 
ous, as,  on  the  slightest  injury,  they  would  be  liable  to  bleed  to 
death. 

There  must,  therefore,  evidently  be  a  cause  for  the  fluidity  of  the 
blood  within  the  body,  and  many  experiments  render  it  highly  pr< 
bable  that  this  depends,  to  a  certain  extent  at  least,  upon  the  vital- 
ity of  the  veins  and  arteries  circulating  it.  Even  the  vitality  of 
the  blood  itself  is  made  more  than  probable  by  the  experiments  of 
Mr.  John  Hunter.  Like  the  egg,  it  can,  within  certain  limits,  resist 
the  influence  of  various  agents,  such  as  heat  and  cold,  while  it 
retains  life,  but  yields  to  them  when  it  dies.  An  electric  shock 
passed  through  it,  instantly  extinguishes  its  vitality,  and  this  is  the 
reason  why  the  blood  in  persons  struck  dead  by  lightning  is  always 
fluid. 

While  physiologists  had  yet  but  inaccurate  ideas  of  the  uses  and 
structure  of  different  organs,  great  benefits  it  was  thought  might 
follow  from  transfusing  a  healthy  animal's  blood  into  a  diseased 
person's  body,  and  some  dangerous  and  even  fatal  experiments  of 
this  kind  were  performed  in  France,  until  the  practice  was  inter- 
dicted by  law.  Of  late  years  the  practice  has  been  revived,  in  cases 
where  great  loss  of  blood  has  happened,  and  its  previous  failure  has 


li- 
ne" 
ro- 


CIRCULATION.  137 

been  shown  to  have  arisen  from  transfusing  the  blood  of  one  species 
into  the  body  of  another,  in  which  the  globules  are  of  a  different 
size  or  shape.  The  blood  of  a  sheep,  for  example,  transfused  into 
a  cat  or  rabbit,  causes  death  in  a  short  time  ;  and  instantaneous 
death  follows  the  transfusion  of  blood  with  circular  globules  into  an 
animal  which  has  these  elliptical. 

If  other  substances  are  mingled  with  the  blood,  equally  serious 
effects  follow.  Farriers  produce  instantaneous  death  in  horses  by 
blowing  air  into  their  veins ;  and  a  person  in  Paris,  a  few  years  ago, 
who  was  having  an  operation  performed  in  which  a  large  vein  in 
the  neck  had  to  be  cut,  from  the  entrance  of  air  fell  over  and  ex- 
pired. No  less  than  about  thirty  other  cases  have  been  published, 
in  which  it  is  probable  death  occurred  from  the  same  cause. 

Having  made  these  observations  regarding  the  blood,  we  must 
now  explain  the  means  employed  for  its  circulation ;  and  in  doing 
so,  we  shall  first  describe  this  as  it  takes  place  in  man  and  in  the 
other  Mammalia ;  for  though  their  circulating  system  is  really  the 
most  complex,  a  knowledge  of  it  forms  a  key  to  all  the  modifica- 
tions which  it  sustains  in  the  other  classes. 

The  course  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  was  unknown  until 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  when  it  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Harvey.  The 
ancients  knew  of  the  existence  of  the  veins  and  arteries,  but 
thought  that  the  blood  was  moved  backwards  and  forwards  in  the 
veins,  and  that  the  arteries  were  filled  with  air.  The  name  of  the 
latter,  indeed,  is  derived  from  arteria,  or  air-tube.  Harvey  publicly 
taught  his  new  doctrines  as  early  as  1616  ;  but,  with  a  caution 
worthy  of  one  whose  fame  was  to  be  coeval  with  our  race,  spent  no 
less  than  twenty-six  years  in  amassing  materials  for  his  immortal 
work  on  the  circulation.  The  reception  it  met  with,  when  pub- 
lished, is  instructive.  Derided  by  his  own  profession  as  a  quack, 
he  was  looked  upon  by  the  vulgar  as  crack-brained,  as  is  always 
the  case  with  the  ignorant,  prejudiced,  and  jealous;  and  in  a  letter 
written  to  a  friend  at  this  period,  he  complains  that  his  practice  had 
suffered  seriously  since  the  publication  of  his  book.  To  the  honor 
of  mankind,  however,  it  must  be  said  that  he  lived  long  enough  to 
^see  his  system  taught  in  every  university  in  the  world. 

The  circulating  system  in  the  Mammalia  may  be  said  to  consist 
of  four  principal  parts — first,  the  heart,  which  is  the  centre  of  the 
whole;  second,  the  arteries,  which  receive  the  blood  from  the 
heart ;  third,  the  veins,  which  return  tie  blood  to  the  heart ;  and. 


138  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

fourth,  the  capillary  (hair-like)  vessels,  which  unite  the  termination 
of  the  arteries  with  the  commencement  of  the  veins. 

Every  one  knows  the  appearance  of  the  heart — an  ox's  or  a 
sheep's,  for  example.  When  cut  up,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  four 
cavities,  two  on  the  right  side  that  communicate  with  each  other, 
but  not  directly  with  those  opposite.  The  diagram  or  figure  affords 
an  exact  representation  of  the  human  heart,  with  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  to  and  from  the  lungs  on  both  sides. 

To  make  the  course  pursued  by  the  blood  more  plain,  we  take 
asunder  the  two  sides  or  chambers  of  the  heart,  and  represent  them 
as  separate  from,  and  opposite  to,  each  other,  as  seen  in  the  figure 
adjoining. 

In  this  ideal  plan  of  the  circulation  in  the  Mammalia,  the  arteries 
and  veins  are  supposed  to  be  thrown  into  continuous  chains,  with 
the  capillaries  as  their  connecting  links.  In  describing  this  plan, 
we  shall  commence  with  the  veins.  It  will  be  seen  that  they 
gradually  unite,  until  those  coming  from  above  and  those  from  below 
form  two  large  vessels  (vence  cava),  that  empty  themselves  into  the 
upper  cavity  of  the  heart  on  the  right  side,  called  the  right  auricle. 
From  the  contraction  or  drawing  together  of  this  auricle,  the  blood 
easily  passes  downwards  into  the  next  cavity,  called  the  right  ven- 
tricle j  and  this,  which  is  still  more  powerful,  also  in  its  turn  con- 
tracting upon  the  blood,  sends  it  through  the  vessel  (p  a),  called  the 
pulmonary  artery.  It  is  plain,  however,  that,  if  nothing  hindered 
it,  the  blood  could  as  easily  go  back  to  the  right  auricle,  as  forwards 
into  the  pulmonary  artery ;  but  this  is  effectually  prevented  by  a 
valve  that  is  placed  between  the  right  auricle  and  the  right  ventricle, 
and  which  allows  the  blood  to  enter,  but  prevents  it  going  back. 
Another  valve,  which  acts  in  a  similar  manner,  is  placed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  so  that  the  blood,  by  the  successive 
contractions  of  the  ventricle,  is  forced  to  go  forward  into  the  lungs. 
Here,  as  will  afterwards  be  explained,  it  becomes  purified,  as  is 
shown  by  its  red  color,  and  is  sent  by  the  pulmonary  veins  ( p  v)  to 
the  left  auricle  of  the  heart,  to  pass,  as  on  the  other  side,  into  the 
left  ventricle.  This  last  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  parts  de- 
scribed, as  it  is  required  to  propel  the  blood  into  the  artery  called 
the  aorta  (o  a),  and  from  it  into  the  whole  of  the  body.  Valves  are 
placed  on  the  left  side,  between  the  auricle  and  ventricle,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  aorta,  which  have  a  similar  action  and  appearance 
to  those  on  the  right  side.  Those  between  the  auricles  and  ven- 
tricles are  called  cuspid,  that  is,  pointed  valves  ;  on  the  right  side, 


FIG,  33.  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 
c    a    P 


Two  halves  of  the  Heart  a  little  separated,  g  Left  side,  a  Aorta,  cap  Capillary 
vessels  which  terminate  the  artery,  v  Venous  system,  d  Right  side  of  the  Heart,  a  f 
Pulmonary  artery,  v  p  Pulmonary  vein.  The  arrows  show  the  course  of  the  blood. 


FIG.  34.  SUPERIOR  MESENTERIC  ARTERY. 


It  arises  from  part  of  the  Aorta  and  supplies  the  Mesentery  with  blood.    It  also  sends 
off  branches  to  the  Intestines.    The  course  of  the  Colon  is  shown  in  the  figure. 


CIRCULATION.  139 

from  having  three  points,  tricuspid  ;  on  the  left  side,  from  having 
two  points,  bicuspid.  Again,  those  at  the  mouths  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  and  aorta,  are,  from  their  shape,  called  semilunar  valves. 

The  blue  color  at  once  gives  an  idea  of  the  parts  of  the  body  in 
which  impure  or  venous  blood  is  circulated  (the  veins,  right  side  of 
the  heart  and  pulmonary  artery).  The  red  color  also  indicates  in 
what  part  the  blood  becomes  purified  (the  lungs),  and  where  it  is 
circulated  as  arterial  or  pure  blood  (the  pulmonary  veins,  left  side 
of  the  heart,  and  arteries).  It  is  in  the  capillaries  between  the 
arteries  and  veins  (which  are  too  minute  to  be  fully  represented  in 
the  figure,  but  which  pervade  every  point  in  our  bodies)  that  the 
blood  parts  with  its  vivifying  qualities.  (See  plate.)  The  commu- 
nication of  these  qualities  to  the  different  structures,  may  be  said, 
indeed,  to  constitute  the  great  object  of  the  circulation.  The 
arrows  in  the  figure  show  the  course  pursued  by  the  blood.  The 
figure  shows  the  situation  of  the  heart  in  the  chest,  with  the  aorta 
and  its  branches  going  off  from  it.  The  two  ventricles  are  seen 
united.  The  two  auricles  are  also  seen.  The  carotid  arteries  going 
to  the  head.  The  superior  vena  cava  (which  empties  itself  into  the 
right  auricle),  in  which  the  jugular  veins  from  the  brain,  and  the 
subclavian  veins  from  the  arms,  are  seen  to  terminate.  The  water- 
works of  our  city  represent  the  circulation  of  the  blood — the  reser- 
voir the  heart,  the  pipes  the  arteries. 

The  course  of  the  circulation,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  will  now  be 
easily  understood.  The  two  vense  cavse  empty  themselves  into  the 
right  auricle.  From  this  the  blood  passes  into  the  right  ventricle, 
which  sends  it  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  this  immediately 
divides  in  the  lungs  into  innumerable  branches,  only  a  few  of  which 
are  represented  in  the  figure.  In  the  lungs,  as  already  mentioned, 
the  blood  is  purified,  and  the  pulmonary  veins  are  therefore  repre- 
sented as  bringing  back  to  the  heart  red  or  arterial  blood.  The 
pulmonary  veins  from  both  sides  pour  their  supplies  of  blood  into 
the  left  auricle,  from  which  again  it  passes  into  the  left  ventricle, 
and  is  by  the  latter  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  body  through  the  aorta 
and  its  branches,  to  be  again  conveyed  by  the  veins  to  the  right  side 
of  the  heart.  By  attending  to  the  directions  indicated  by  the  arrows, 
Nthe  course  of  the  circulation  in  this  and  the  other  figures  will  be 
made  very  plain. 

To  recapitulate  what  has  just  been  said,  on  the  route  pursued  by 
the  blood,  in  the  apparatus  of  the  circulation  in  mammiferous  ani- 
mals and  birds,  we  see  : 


140  AJTATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

1st.  That  the  venous  blood  arrives  from  all  parts  of  the  body  by 
the  general  system  of  veins  ; 

2d.  That  from  these  veins  it  enters  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart; 

3d.  That  from  the  right  auricle  it  passes  into  the  right  ventricle ; 

4th.  That  from  the  right  ventricle  the  venous  blood  passes  through 
the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  lungs ; 

5th.  That  in  the  capillary  vessels,  which  form  the  termination 
of  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  commencement  of  the  pulmonary 
veins,  this  liquid  is  changed  into  arterial  blood  ; 

6th.  That  this  arterial  blood  returns  from  the  lungs,  through  the 
pulmonary  veins,  and  enters  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart ; 

7th.  That  from  the  left  auricle  it  descends  into  the  ventricle  of 
the  same  side ; 

8th.  That  from  the  left  ventricle  it  is  forced  into  the  aorta,  by 
which  it  is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

And  9th. — and  finally,  that  in  the  capillary  terminations  of  the 
system  of  canals  formed  by  the  aorta,  the  arterial  blood  acts  upon 
the  organs,  is  changed  there  into  venous  blood,  and  enters  the  veins 
to  be  carried  again  to  the  heart. 

In  accomplishing  the  circulatory  circle,  the  blood  then  passes 
twice  through  the  heart,  in  the  state  of  venous  b]ood  on  the  right 
side,  and  in  the  state  of  arterial  blood  in  the  left  side  of  this  organ ; 
yet  the  circulation  is  complete,  because  the  pulmonary  and  aortic 
cavities  of  the  heart  do  not  open  one  into  the  other,  and  the  venous 
blood  passes  through  the  entire  respiratory  apparatus  to  be  trans- 
muted into  arterial  blood. 

From  the  description  given,  it  must  be  plain  that  the  office 
filled  by  the  heart,  with  its  accurately-working  valves,  is  essentially 
that  of  a  forcing-pump.  And  with  what  inimitable  precision  and 
regularity  does  it  perform  this  all-important  duty !  Unweariedly 
during  the  whole  term  of  a  long  life  it  sends  out  daily  its  one  hun- 
dred thousand  waves  of  healthful  fluid  to  refresh  and  renovate  every 
corner  of  the  system  ;  and  small  as  each  wave  may  be  individually, 
the  aggregate  amount  is  enormous.  Thirteen  thousand  pounds  of 
blood  pass  out  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  of  an  ordinary  man 
every  twenty-four  hours.  But  the  aorta  of  man  is  not  an  inch  in 
diameter,  whereas  the  aorta  of  a  whale  is  three  feet  two  inches  in 
circumference.  Well,  therefore,  might  Dr.  Paley  say,  that  the.  cir- 
culation is  a  serious  affair  in  such  an  animal.  "  The  aorta  of  the 
whale,"  says  he,  "  is  larger  in  the  bore  than  the  main  pipe  of  the 
water-works  at  London  Bridge  ;  and  the  water  roaring  in  its  pas- 


FIG.  25. 


1  The  right  ventricle.  2  The  left  ventricle.  3  The  right  auricle.  4  The  left  auricle. 
5  The  pulmonary  artery.  6  The  right  pulmonary  artery.  7  The  left  pulmonary  artery. 
8  The  remains  of  the  ductus  arteriosus.  9  The  arch  of  the  aorta.  10  The  superior 
vena  cava.  11  The  right  arteria  innominata.  12  The  right  subclavian  vein,  and  be- 
hind it  its  corresponding  artery.  13  The  right  carotid  artery  and  vein.  14  The  left 
vena  innominata.  15  The  left  carotid  artery  and  vein.  16  The  left  subclavian  vein  and 
artery.  17  The  trachea.  18  The  right  bronchus.  19  The  left  bronchus.  20,  20  The 
pulmonary  veins;  18,  20  form  the  root  of  the  right  lung;  and  7,  19,  20  the  root  of  the 
left.  21  The  superior  lobe  of  the  right  lung.  22  Its  middle  lobe.  23  Its  inferior  lobe. 
24  The  superior  lobe  of  the  left  lung.  25  Its  inferior  lobe. 

FIG.  26. 


1  The  trachea.  2  The  right  and  left  bronchus.  3  Right  auricle  of  the  heart.  4  Left 
auricle.  5  Right  ventricle,  6  The  aorta  arising  from  the  left  ventricle,  the  left  ventri- 
cle being  in  this  diagram  concealed  by  the  right.  7  Pulmonary  artery  arising  from  the 
right  ventricle  and  dividing  into,  8  The  right,  and  9  The  left  branch.  10  Branches  of 
one  of  the  pulmonary  veins  proceeding  from  the  terminations  of  the  pulmonary  artery  on 
the  air  vesicles,where  together  they  form  the  net- work  of  vessels  termed  the  Rete  Mirabile. 
11  Trunk  of  the  vein  on  its  way  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart.  12  Superior  vena  cava. 
13  Inferior  vena  cava.  14  Air  vesicles  magnified.  15  Blood-vessels  distributed  upon  them. 


CIRCULATION.  141 

sage  through  that  pipe,  is  inferior  in  impetus  and  velocity  to  the 
blood  gushing  through  the  whale's  heart." 

But  if  we  are  astonished  in  reflecting  what  must  take  place  in 
the  aorta  of  the  whale,  our  admiration  will  be  not  less  excited  on 
examining  the  circulation  even  in  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot.  When 
this  is  brought  under  a  moderately  powerful  microscope,  we  can 
perceive  with  ease  through  the  transparent  coats  of  the  tiny  vessels, 
the  red  globules  of  the  blood — in  some  singly,  with  long  intervals 
between — in  others,  two  abreast — and,  in  others  still,  numbers 
crowded  together — pursuing  their  beautiful  course,  like  the  trains 
of  spectral  figures  that  pass  before  us  in  our  dreams — now  moving 
onwards  with  the  most  steady  regularity,  and  again  hurried  forward 
by  the  struggles  of  the  little  animal.  This  sight,  an  excellent 
writer  well  observes,  "  is  one  which  no  man  who  has  once  seen  can 
ever  forget ;  and  he  who  has  not  seen  it,  has  not  seen  one  of  the 
most  curious,  and  wonderful,  and  beautiful  objects  which  animated 
nature  presents." 

Like  most  of  the  organs  of  organic  life,  the  heart,  in  its  usual 
state,  gives  us  but  slight  indications  of  sensibility.  Harvey  met 
with  an  extraordinary  opportunity  of  showing  this.  A  young 
nobleman,  from  disease,  had  the  heart  exposed,  so  that  it  could 
even  be  handled  while  beating ;  and  Harvey,  to  his  astonishment, 
found  that,  unless  his  fingers  came  in  contact  with  the  outer 
skin,  the  young  man  was  altogether  unconscious  of  the  heart  being 
touched.  Though  nearly  destitute  of  the  sensations  of  touch, 
however,  the  heart  is  instantly  affected  by  every  powerful  bodily 
excitement,  or  strong  mental  emotion.  Upon  the  first  of  these  de- 
pends the  use  physicians  make  of  the  pulse  (which  is  just  the 
heart's  beat  transmitted  through  the  arteries)  in  judging  of  the  dif- 
ferent bodily  ailments  ;  while  the  power  of  emotions  over  the  heart 
has  furnished  the  poetry  of  all  languages  with  some  of  its  strongest 
images.  The  capillaries  also  share  in  the  influence  of  emotions, 
of  which  we  have  a  familiar  example  in  blushing. 

The  greater  or  less  vigor  with  which  the  blood  is  circulated 
through  the  system,  gives  rise  to  important  effects.  We  see  this 
particularly  in  two  forms  of  constitution.  In  the  one,  the  circula- 
tion is  very  vigorous  ;  all  the  functions  are  performed  with  energy ; 
and  the  diseases  in  general  are  of  an  acute  character.  When  the 
complexion  is  fair,  this  constitutes  what  has  been  called  the  sanguine 
temperament — when  dark,  the  choleric.  In  the  other  variety,  the 
circulation,  and  all  the  functions  connected  with  it,  are  languidly 


142  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

performed ;  the  surface  is  easily  chilled,  and  the  diseases  have  fre- 
quently a  low  insidious  character.  When  the  complexion  is  fair, 
this  has  been  called  the  phlegmatic  temperament,  and  the  melan- 
cholic when  the  complexion  is  dark.  With  a  feeble  circulation,  the 
general  health  never  can  be  good  ;  and  hence  we  find  the  action  of 
the  heart  weak  in  most  delicate  persons. 

The  arteries,  like  the  intestines,  are  composed  of  three  coats,  and 
the  middle  one  is  generally  considered  to  be  muscular,  in  order  to 
assist  the  contractions  of  the  heart ;  but  its  muscularity  is  by  no 
means  so  marked  as  is  the  muscularity  of  the  intestinal  canal. 
These  coats  possess  also  different  degrees  of  distensibility,  the 
inner  one  having  the  least.  This  gives  rise  to  the  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance, that  when,  as  in  those  horrid  accidents  that  are  some- 
times caused  by  machinery,  a  limb  is  torn  off,  frequently  not  a 
spoonful  of  blood  will  be  lost.  The  reason  is,  that  the  inner  coat, 
which  is  ruptured  first,  curls  up,  and,  assisted  by  the  outer  coat, 
forms  a  plug  in  the  blood-vessels.  These  coats  are  sometimes  dis- 
tended more  gradually  by  the  continued  impulse  of  the  heart, 
constituting  the  disease  called  aneurism.  The  sac  thus  formed,  if 
on  the  largest  vessels,  occasionally  attains  the  size  of  a  child's 
head,  and  produces  instantaneous  death  when  it  ultimately  bursts. 

The  part  of  the  circulating  system  most  liable  to  disease  is  the 
valves,  and  especially  those  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart.  Ossifi- 
cation, or  the  disposition  of  bone  in  their  substance,  is  what  most 
commonly  affects  them.  As  might  be  anticipated,  the  blood  regur- 
gitates and  stagnates,  and  great  distress  in  breathing,  dropsy,  &c., 
are  the  consequences.  The  only  other  valves  in  the  circulating 
system  are  in  the  veins,  and  they  seldom  become  diseased. 

The  cavities  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart  contain  arterial  blood, 
and  those  of  the  right  side,  venous  blood. 

The  vessels  which  convey  arterial  blood  into  all  the  organs  take 
their  origin  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  through  the  medium 
of  a  single  trunk,  called  the  aorta. 

This  great  artery  first  mounts  upwards  towards  the  base  of  the 
neck,  then  bends  downwards,  forming  a  sort  of  crook,  passes  be- 
hind the  heart  and  descends  vertically,  in  front  of  the  spine,  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  belly.  In  its  course,  the  aorta  gives  off  a  great 
number  of  branches,  the  principal  of  which  are  : 

1st.  The  two  carotid  arteries  mount  along  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
and  supply  the  head  with  blood. 

2d.  The   two   arteries  of  the  upper    extremities,    successively 


CIRCULATION.  143 

obtain  the  names  of  subclavian,  axillary,  and  brachial  arteries,  as 
they  pass  under  the  clavicle,  or  cross  the  armpit,  or  descend  along 
the  arm  to  the  elbow,  where  they  divide  into  two  branches,  called 
the  radial  a,nd  ulnar,  or  cubital  arteries. 

3d.  The  intercostal  arteries  are  several  in  number,  and  run  be- 
tween the  ribs  on  each  side  of  the  body. 

4th.  The  ceeliac  artery,  which  is  distributed  to  the  stomach,  the 
liver,  and  the  spleen. 

5th.  The  mesenteric  arteries,  which  ramify  upon  the  intestines. 

6th.  The  renal  arteries,  which  penetrate  into  the  kidneys. 

And  7th.  The  iliac  arteries,  which  in  a  manner  terminate  the 
aorta,  and  which  convey  blood  to  the  lower  extremities,  descend 
along  the  thighs,  and  are  there  called  femoral  arteries ;  then  they 
divide  into  many  branches  which  terminate  in  the  feet. 

The  veins,  which  receive  the  blood  thus  transmitted  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  follow  very  nearly  the  same  course  as  the  arteries ; 
but  they  are  larger,  more  numerous,  and  generally  situated  more 
superficially.  A  great  number  of  these  vessels  pass  beneath  the 
skin,  others  accompany  the  arteries,  and,  at  last,  they  all  unite  to 
form  two  great  trunks  which  empty  into  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart,  and  which  have  received  the  names  of  vena  cava  superior 
and  vena  cava  inferior. 

The  veins  which  come  from  the  intestines  present  an  important 
peculiarity.  After  uniting  in  a  large  trunk,  they  penetrate  the 
liver,  and  there  ramify  like  the  arteries ;  there  they  again  unite  into 
a  trunk  and  terminate  in  the  inferior  vena  cava  close  to  the  heart. 
This  arrangement  of  the  vessels  is  called  the  system  of  the  vena 
porta. 

When  the  chambers  of  the  heart  which  open  into  each  other, 
and  which  as  freely  communicate  with  the  great  vessels  that  enter 
and  proceed  from  them>  are  forcibly  closed,  and  the  blood  they  con- 
tain is  projected  from  them,  how  is  one  uniform  forward  direction 
given  to  the  current  ?  Why,  when  the  right  ventricle  contracts,  is 
the  blood  not  sent  back  into  the  right  auricle,  as  well  as  for- 
ward into  the  pulmonary  artery  1  There  is  but  one  mode  of  pre- 
venting such  an  event,  which  is  to  place  a  floodgate  between  the 
two  chambers  ;  and  there  a  floodgate  is  placed,  and  that  floodgate 
is  the  valve.  As  long  as  the  blood  proceeds  onwards  in  the  direct 
course  of  the  circulation,  it  presses  this  membrane  close  to  the  side  of 
the  heart,  and  thereby  prevents  it  from  occasioning  any  impediment 
to  the  current.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  blood  is  forced  back- 


144  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

ward,  and  attempts  to  re-enter  the  auricle,  being  of  course  driven 
in  all  directions,  some  of  it  passes  between  the  wall  of  the  ventricle 
and  the  valve.  The  moment  it  is  in  this  situation  it  raises  up  the 
valve,  carries  it  over  the  mouth  of  the  passage,  and  shuts  up  the 
channel.  There  cannot  be  a  more  perfect  flood-gate. 

This  is  beautiful  mechanism ;  but  there  is  another  arrangement 
which  surpasses  mere  mechanism,  however  beautiful.  It  has  been 
shown  that  one  edge  of  the  membrane  that  forms  the  valves  is  firmly 
adherent  to 'the  wall  of  the  ventricle,  while  the  other  edge,  when 
not  in  action,  appears  to  lie  loosely  in  the  ventricle.  Were  this 
edge  really  loose  the  refluent  current  would  carry  it  back  completely 
into  the  auricle,  and  so  counteract  its  action  as  a  valve ;  but  it  is 
attached  to  the  tendinous  threads  proceeding  from  the  fleshy 
columns  that  stand  along  the  wall  of  the  ventricle.  By  these  ten- 
dinous threads,  as  by  so  many  strings,  the  membrane  is  firmly  held 
in  its  proper  position  ;  and  the  refluent  current  cannot  carry  it  into 
the  auricle.  Thus  far  the  arrangement  is  mechanical.  But  each 
of  these  fleshy  columns  is  a  muscle,  exerting  a  proper  muscular 
action.  Among  the  stimulants  which  excite  the  contractility  of  the 
muscular  fibre,  one  of  the  most  powerful  is  distension.  The 
refluent  current  distends  the  membrane  ;  the  distension  of  the  mem- 
brane stretches  the  tendinous  threads  attached  to  it ;  the  stretching 
of  its  tendinous  threads  stretches  the  fleshy  column  ;  by  this  disten- 
sion of  the  column  it  is  excited  to  contraction ;  by  the  contraction 
of  the  column  its  thread  is  shortened ;  by  the  shortening  of  the 
thread  the  valve  is  tightened,  and  that  in  the  exact  degree  in  wrhich 
the  thread  is  shortened.  So,  the  greater  the  impetus  of  the  refluent 
blood,  the  greater  the  distension  of  the  membrane  ;  and  the  greater 
the  distension  of  the  membrane,  the  greater  the  excitement  of  the 
fleshy  column,  the  greater  the  energy  with  which  it  is  stimulated 
to  act,  the  greater,  therefore,  the  security  that  the  valve  will  be 
held  just  in  the  position  that  is  required,  with  exactly  the  force  that 
is  needed.  Here,  then,  is  a  flood-gate  not  only  well  constructed  as 
far  as  regards  the  mechanical  arrangement,  but  so  endowed  as  to 
be  able  to  act  with  additional  force  whenever  additional  force  is 
requisite  ;  to  put  forth  on  every  occasion,  as  the  occasion  arises, 
just  the  degree  of  strength  required,  and  no  more. 

The  contraction  of  the  heart  is  the  power  that  moves  the  blood  ; 
and  this  contraction  generates  a  force  which  is  adequate  to  impel  it 
through  the  circle. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  different  chambers  of  the  heart  have 


CIRCULATION.  145 

a  tendency  to  perform  their  movements  in  a  uniform  manner,  and  in 
a  successive  order ;  that  they  contract  and  dilate  in  regular  alterna- 
tion, and  at  equal  intervals  ;  but,  moreover,  they  continue  these 
movements  equally  without  rest  and  without  fatigue.  On  go  the 
motions,  night  and  day,  for  eighty  years  together,  at  the  rate  of  a 
hundred  thousand  strokes  every  twenty-four  hours,  alike  without 
disorder,  cessation,  or  weariness.  The  muscles  of  the  arm  tire 
after  an  hour's  exertion,  are  exhausted  after  a  day's  labor,  and  can 
by  no  effort  be  made  to  work  beyond  a  certain  period.  There  is  no 
appreciable  difference  between  the  muscular  substance  of  the  heart 
and  that  of  the  arm.  It  is  true  that  the  heart  is  placed  under  one 
condition  which  is  peculiar.  Muscles  contract  on  the  application 
of  stimuli ;  and  different  muscles  arjeobedient  to  different  stimuli, 
— the  voluntary  muscles  to  the  stimiffis  of  volition,  and  the  heart 
to  that  of  the  blood.  The  exertion  of  volition  is  not  constant,  but 
occasional ;  the  muscle  acts  only  when  it  is  excited  by  the  applica- 
tion of  its  stimulus  :  hence  the  voluntary  muscle  has  considerable 
intervals  of  rest.  The  blood,  on  the  contrary,  is  conveyed  to  the 
heart  without  ceasing,  in  a  determinate  manner,  in  a  successive 
order  ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  through  life  its  action  is  uniform : 
it  uniformly  receives  a  due  supply  of  its  appropriate  stimulus.  But 
why  it  is  unwearied,  why  it  never  requires  rest,  we  do  not  know. 
We  know  the  necessities  of  the  system  which  render  it  indispensa- 
ble that  it  should  be  capable  of  untiring  action,  for  we  know  that 
the  first  hour  of  its  repose  would  be  the  last  of  life  ;  but  of  the 
mode  in  which  this  wonderful  endowment  is  communicated,  or  of 
the  relations  upon  wTiioh  it  is  dependent,  we  are  wholly  ignorant. 

The  force  exerted  by  the  heart  is  vital.  It  is  distinguished  from 
mechanical  force  in  being  produced  by  the  very  engine  that  exerts 
it.  In  the  best-constructed  machinery  there  is  no  real  generation 
of  power.  There  is  merely  concentration  and  direction  of  it.  In 
the  recoil  of  the  spring,  in  the  re-action  of  condensed  steam,  the 
energy  of  the  expansive  impulse  is  never  greater  than  the  force 
employed  to  compress  or  condense,  and  the  moment  this  power  is 
expended,  all  capacity  of  motion  is  at  end.  But  the  heart  produces 
a  force  equal  to  the  pressure  of  sixty  pounds  by  the  gentlest  appli- 
cation of  a  bland  fluid.  Here  no  force  is  communicated  to  be  again 
given  out,  as  in  every  mechanical  moving  power ;  but  it  is  new 
power,  power  really  and  properly  generated  ;  and  this  power  is  the 
result  of  vital  action,  and  is  never  in  any  case  the  result  of  action 
that  is  not  vital. 

10 


146  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

MECHANISM    OF   THE    CIRCULATION. 

The  mechanical  action,  by  which  the  blood  is  caused  to  circulate 
in  the  vessels,  is  easily  comprehended.  The  cavities  -of  the  heart, 
as  already  explained,  contract  and  dilate  alternately,  by  the  alter- 
nate shortening  and  relaxation  of  the  muscular  fibres  that  form  their 
walls ;  and  the  force  of  their  contraction  is  sufficient  to  propel  the 
blood  through  the  vessels  which  proceed  from  them.  The  two  ven- 
tricles contract  at  the  same  moment ;  the  auricles  contract  during 
the  relaxation  of  the  ventricles,  and  are  themselves  relaxed  whilst 
the  ventricles  are  contracting.  The  series  of  movements  is,  there- 
fore, as  follows  : — The  auricles  bein'g  full  of  blood  which  they  have 
received  from  the  venae  cavaB  and  pulmonary  veins,  discharge  it  by 
their  contraction  into  the  ventricles,  which  have  just,  before  emptied 
themselves  into  the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery,  and  which  now 
dilate  to  receive  it.  When  filled  by  the  contraction  of  the  auricles, 
these  contract  in  their  turn,  so  as  to  propel  their  blood  into  the  great 
vessels  proceeding  from  them  ;  and  whilst  they  are  doing  this,  the 
auricles  again  dilate  to  receive  the  blood  from  the  venous  system, 
after  which  the  whole  process  goes  on  as  before.  It  is  when  the 
ventricles  contract,  that  we  feel  the  beat  of  the  heart,  which  is 
caused  by  the  striking  of  its  lower  extremity  against  the  walls  of 
the  chest ;  and  it  is  by  the  same  action  that  the  pulse  in  the  arteries 
is  produced. 

The  combined  action  of  each  auricle  and  its  ventricle  may  be  illus- 
trated by  an  apparatus  like  that  represented  in  the  following  figure. 
It  consists  of  two  pumps,  a  and  6,  of  which  the  pistons  move  up  and 
down  alternately ;  and  these  are  connected  with  a  pipe,  cf,  in  which 
there  are  two  valves,  d  and  e,  opening  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow. 
The  portion  c  of  the  pipe  represents  the  venous  trunk,  by  which 
the  blood  enters  the  heart ;  the  pump  a  represents  the  auricle,  and 
the  raising  of  its  piston  enables  the  fluid  to  enter  and  fill  it.  When 
its  piston  is  lowered,  its  fluid  is  forced  through  the  valve  d  into  the 
pump  b  (which  represents  the  ventricle),  whose  piston  is  at  the  same 
time  raised  to  receive  it ;  and  when  this  piston  is  lowered  in  its 
turn,  the  fluid  (being  prevented  from  returning  into  a  by  the  closure 
of  the  valve  d)  is  propelled  through  the  valve  e  into  the  pipe/, 
which  may  represent  an  arterial  tube ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  a 
fresh  supply  of  blood  is  received  into  the  pump  a  by  the  raising  of 
its  piston. 


CIRCULATION, 


147 


Such  is  the  description,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  first  proof, 
such  the  evidence  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  human 
body,  pretty  much  as  it  was  given  by  the  discoverer  of  it,  the  illus- 
trious Harvey.  Before  the  time  of  Harvey,  a  vague  and  indistinct 
conception  that  the  blood  was  not  without  motion  in  the  body  had 
been  formed  by  several  anatomists.  It  is  analogous  to  the  ordinary 
mode  in  which  the  human  mind  arrives  at  discovery,  that  many 
minds  should  have  an  imperfect  perception  of  an  unknown  truth, 
before  some  one  mind  sees  it  in  its  completeness  and  fully  discloses 
it.  Having,  about  the  year  1629,  succeeded  in  completely  tracing 
the  circle  in  which  the  blood  moves,  and  having  at  that  time  col- 
lected all  the  evidence  of  the  fact,  with  a  rare  degree  of  philosophi- 
cal forbearance,  Harvey  still  spent  no  less  than  eight  years  in  re- 
examining  the  subject,  and  in  maturing  the  proof  of  every  point, 
before  he  ventured  to  speak  of  it  in  public.  The  brief  tract  which 
at  length  he  published  was  written  with  extreme  simplicity,  clear- 
ness, and  perspicuity,  and  has  been  justly  characterized  as  one  of 
the  most  admirable  examples  of  a  series  of  arguments  deduced  from 
observation  and  experiment  that  ever  appeared  on  any  subject. 

Contemporaries  are  seldom  grateful  to  discoverers.  More  than 
one  instance  is  on  record  in  which  a  man  has  injured  his  fortune 
and  lost  his  happiness  through  the  elucidation  and  establishment  of 
a  truth  which  has  given  him  immortality.  It  may  be  that  there  are 
physical  truths  yet  to  be  brought  to  life,  to  say  nothing  of  new 
applications  of  old  truths,  which,  if  they  could  be  announced  and 
demonstrated  to-day,  would  be  the  ruin  of  the  discoverer.  It  is 
certain  that  there  are  moral  truths  to  be  discovered,  expounded,  and 
enforced,  which,  if  any  man  had  now  penetration  enough  to  see 
them,  and  courage  enough  to  express  them,  would  cause  him  to  be 
regarded  by  the  present  generation  with  horror  and  detestation. 
Perhaps,  during  those  eight  years  of  re-examination,  the  discoverer 


148  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

of  the  circulation  sometimes  endeavored  in  imagination  to  trace  the 
effect  which  the  stupendous  fact  at  the  knowledge  of  which  he  had 
arrived  would  have  on  the  progress  of  his  favorite  science  ;  and,  it 
may  be,  the  hope  and  the  expectation  occasionally  arose  that  the 
inestimable  benefit  he  was  about  to  confer  on  his  fellow  men  would 
secure  to  him  some  portion  of  their  esteem  and  confidence.  What 
must  have  been  his  disappointment  when  he  found,  after  the  publi- 
cation of  his  tract,  that  the  little  practice  he  had  had  as  a  physician 
by  degrees  fell  off.  He  was  too  speculative,  too  theoretical*  not 
practical.  Such  was  the  view  taken  even  by  his  friends.  His 
enemies  saw  in  his  tract  nothing  but  indications  of  a  presumptuous 
mind  that  dared  to  call  in  question  the  revered  authority  of  the 
ancients ;  and  some  of  them  saw,  moreover,  indications  of  a  malig- 
nant mind,  that  conceived  and  defended  doctrines  which,  if  not 
checked,  would  undermine  the  very  foundations  of  morality  and 
religion.  When  the  evidence  of  the  truth  became  irresistible,  then 
these  persons  suddenly  turned  round  and  said,  that  it  was  all  known 
before,  and  that  the  sole  merit  of  this  vaunted  discoverer  consisted 
in  having  circulated  the  circulation.  The  pun  was  not  fatal  to  the 
future  fame  of  this  truly  great  man,  nor  even  to  the  gradual  though 
slow  return  of  the  public  confidence  even  during  his  own  time  ;  for 
he  lived  to  attain  the  summit  of  reputation,  and  to  see  his  great 
discovery  taught  in  all  the  medical  colleges,  as  before  stated. 

The  parts  of  the  circulating  system  most  difficult  to  be  understood, 
are  the  valves  of  the  heart  and  their  action.  Both  these  can  be  beau- 
tifully shown  in  a  cow's  heart,  the  vessels  of  which  have  been  cut 
high  up,  and  as  little  injured  as  possible.  The  hard  suet  being  cleared 
from  the  base  of  the  heart,  to  show  the  bicuspid  valve  between  the 
left  auricle  and  ventricle,  pass  the  finger  into  the  large  opening  of 
the  aorta  (which  is  the  vessel  butchers  often  hang  the  heart  by) 
nearest  the  heart,  when  will  be  felt  the  semilunar  valves  at  the 
mouth  of  the  left  ventricle.  These  must  be  broken  down  by 
cautiously  introducing  a  scalpel,  or  penknife,  and  cutting  and  then 
forcibly  rupturing  them  with  the  finger.  Having  done  this,  close 
all  the  openings  on  the  side  of  the  aorta,  by  tying  them,  or  trans- 
fixing them  with  a  needle,  and  twisting  thread  round  it,  or  putting 
a  small  cork  in  the  largest,  fastening  with  needles,  and  twisting 
thread  round  them,  &c.  Now  pour  water  gently  into  the  aorta,  and 
notice  where  it  escapes.  This  will  be  by  the  left  auricle,  which  is 
to  be  cautiously  removed  (but  not  cut  quite  to  its  base),  until  the 
valves  are  exposed.  If  water  is  now  poured  quickly  into  the  aorta> 


THE  ARTERIAL  SYSTEM. 

Showing  the  Aorta,  or  main  pipe,  from  its  orifice,  together  with  its  branches,  and 
all  the  arteries  with  their  various  ramifications  throughout  the  Human  System,  in 
their«natural  color,  carrying,  with  fearful  rapidity  and  power,  the  crimson  fluid,  from 
the  great  reservoir,  the  Heart,  to  the  minutest  part  of  the  system,  flowing  in  jets  and 
causing  the  pulsations  at  the  wrists 


THE  VENOUS  SYSTEM. 

Showing  the  two  Vsna  Cavce,  or  great  veins,  together  with  all  the  veins  in  the  Human 
System,  in  their  natural  color,  returning  the  blood  to  the  great  fountain,  the  Heart. 


CIRCULATION.  149 

the  bicuspid  valve  will  be1  seen  to  be  lifted  up,  and  to  prevent  its 
escape ;  or,  what  is  better,  the  air  may  be  made  to  take  the  place 
of  the  water,  by  drawing  in  the  breath  and  blowing  forcibly,  in 
quick  succession,  through  the  aorta.  The  action  of  the  valve  during 
life  may  thus  be  shown  with  tolerable  accuracy. 

When  this  has  been  examined  the  heart  may  be  cut  through 
transversely,  two  or  three  inches  above  the  apex,  to  show  the 
greater  thickness  of  the  left  than  the  right  ventricle ;  the  left 
ventricle  and  aorta  may  then  be  cut  up  to  show  their  internal 
surface — the  fleshy  columns  and  tendinous  cords,  which  assist  the 
heart  in  contracting,  the  appearance  of  the  bicuspid  and  semilunar 
valves,  the  grooves  leading  to  the  branches  from  the  aorta,  &c. 

The  action  of  the  semilunar  valve  may  now  be  shown  by  cau- 
tiously cutting  away  the  right  ventricle,  till  the  valves  at  the  mouth 
cf  the  pulmonary  artery  are  exposed.  Take  a  pig's  bladder,  and 
cut  about  two  inches  off  each  extremity.  Sew  the  narrower  end 
round  the  inner  surface  of  the  pulmonary  artery ;  pour  a  jugful  of 
water  quickly  into  the  bladder,  and  the  action  of  the  valves,  in 
preventing  its  return,  will  be  seen. 

By  mixing  Paris  plaster  (which  may  be  got  from  any  plasterer) 
bulk  for  bulk  with  the  water,  casts  of  the  pulmonary  valves,  of  the 
left  ventricle,  &c.,  may  be  made,  and  cut  out  when  dry.  To  take 
a  cast  of  the  right  ventricle,  the  pulmonary  valves  must  be  broken 
down,  as  above.  These  make  very  instructive  preparations,  when 
the  valves,  &c.,  are  distinguished  by  being  colored. 

Attention  should  also  be  directed  to  the  great  difference  in  mus- 
cularity between  the  auricles  and  ventricles,  and  to  the  sounds  of 
the  heart  as  they  can  be  heard  by  applying  the  ear  to  the  left  side 
of  the  chest  of  a  ttiin  person.  The  first  dull  sound  is  supposed  to 
be  produced  principally  by  the  contraction  of  the  ventricles,  the 
succeeding  sharp  sound  by  the  falling  back  of  the  blood  on  the 
semilunar  valves.  In  disease,  these  sounds  become  louder  and 
much  altered — in  some  cases  resembling  the  blowing  of  bellows,  in 
others  the  rasping  of  a  file,  &c.  The  contraction  of  the  heart  is 
called  its  systole,  the  time  it  rests  its  diastole. 

To  show  the  fibrin  of  the  blood,  get  some  from  the  butcher  (who 
extracts  it  by  turning  his  fingers  in  the  blood  while  coagulating), 
and  wash  it  till  it  is  pure  white.  The  coagulability  of  the  serum 
should  be  shown  by  heating  it  in  a  Florence  flask. 

As  mentioned  in  the  text,  the  microscope  shows  the  circulation 
in  a  frog's  foot. 


150  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

Other  figures  to  illustrate  this  section  may  be  found  in  "  Animal 
Physiology  "  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  pages  69,  70, 
71,  73,  74 ;  in  Dr.  Roget's  Bridgewater  Treatise  ;  in  Dr.  Smith's 
Philosophy  of  Health ;  in  Bell's  Anatomy,  &c. 

The  blood  is  subject  to  disease  with  other  parts  of  the  body, 
arising  from  various  causes,  and  the  most  frequent  is  an  unequal 
circulation  of  it.  When  the  capillary  system  of  the  skin  ceases  to 
perform  its  functions,  or  does  it  imperfectly,  the  blood  is  diverted 
from  its  ordinary  channels,  and  driven  inwards  to  some  of  the 
organs,  and  by  its  preternatural  accumulation,  in  connexion  with 
retained  morbid  perspiratory  matter,  becomes  a  source  of  irritation 
and  inflammation.  This  state  of  the  system  does  not  prove  that 
there  is  too  great  a  quantity  of  this  fluid  in  the  body,  but  that  the 
balance  of  the  circulation  is  lost ;  that  there  is  not  an  equable 
distribution  throughout  the  blood-vessels.  The  defective  doctor 
now  steps  in,  not  as  a  servant  of  nature  to  assist  her  to  return  back 
the  blood  to  its  original  channels  by  appropriate  treatment,  but 
abstracts  a  portion  of  it,  and  thus  frustrates  her  intentions  to  accom- 
plish this  object. 

As  the  restorative  process  depends  on,  the  blood,  just  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  taken  is  the  power  to  produce  re-action  dimi- 
nished, and  it  appears  to  me  to  be  as  unphilosophical  and  unrea- 
sonable to  bleed  a  man  to  cure  him  of  a  disease  as  it  would  be  to 
lay  an  additional  weight  on  anything  which  a  person  was  exerting 
all  his  strength  to  lift.  The  inability  to  raise  it  would  be  just  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  added,  and  thus  the  phlebotomist  retards 
instead  of  assisting  nature. 

According  to  this  view,  then,  the  proper  treatment  consists  not 
in  lessening  the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  system,  but  in  equalizing 
it ;  and  this  must  be  effected  by  administering  such  medicines  as 
cause  a  determination  of  the  blood  to  the  surface  from  whence  it 
has  retreated.  Warm  herb  tea  to  be  given,  aided  by  warmth  exter- 
nally, as  hot  bricks,  or  bottles  of  hot  water  to  the  sides  and  feet. 
In  some  cases  the  vapor  bath  or  a  "  rum  sweat."  The  cardinal 
indication  or  intention  to  fulfil  this  is  to  equalize  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  not  impair  it,  or  abstract  it.  In  those  cases  where  there 
is  a  taint  or  impurity,  alterative  agents  should  be  given. 

IN    FEBRILE    DISEASES 

Pursue  the  following  course  : — Commence  by  taking  an  emetic, 
and  the  next  day  take  a  cathartic.  When  the  operation  is  over, 


CIRCULATION.  151 

use  means  to  produce  free  perspiration  ;  if  the  attack  is  severe,  take 
a  rum  sweat.  This  may  be  done  over  a  cane  seat  or  open  seated 
chair,  with  the  patient  divested  of  all  clothing,  but  covered  from 
the  neck  to  the  floor  with  two  or  three  blankets  or  coverlids  to  keep 
in  the  vapor,  and  his  feet  placed  at  the  same  time  in  weak  warm 
ley-water.  Put  a  quantity  of  rum  in  a  tin  or  earthen  vessel,  and 
place  it  underneath  the  chair,  and  set  fire  to  it.  Let  the  patient 
continue  in  this  situation  till  free  perspiration  is  produced ;  then 
remove  him  to  the  bed,  and  give  freely  of  herb  tea  as  before  directed. 
When  the  perspiration  has  subsided,  take  weak  ley-water,  rather 
cool,  dip  a  sponge  or  towel  into  it,  and,  if  the  patient  is  unable  to 
sit  up,  raise  the  clothes  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  other  bathe 


the  whole  surface  of  the  body  and  extremities,  as  represented  in 
the  above  figure,  at  the  same  time  administer  freely  of  catnip  or 
other  herb  tea.  This  ablution  or  bathing  must  be  repeated  as  often 
as  there  is  an  accession  or  increase  of  fever,  which  usually  takes 
place  towards  evening.  This  will  thoroughly  cleanse  the  surface  of 
all  morbid  or  viscid  matter  which  obstructs  perspiration,  and  while 
it  invites  the  fluids  to  trie  surface,  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin  and 
equalizes  the  circulation — and  which  prevents  the  necessity  of  ab- 
stracting any  blood.  This  course  soon  diminishes  the  pulse  and 
fever  surprisingly,  and  secures  rest  and  sleep. 

A  purgative, as  a  general  rule,  may  be  given  every  other  morning. 
If  the  disease  is  very  obstinate,  the  emetic  may  occasionally  be 
repeated.  The  cathartic  and  the  bathing  must  be  regularly  perse- 
vered in.  If  there  is  determination  of  blood  to  the  head  plasters 
of  mustard,  Indian  meal,  and  vinegar,  combined,  must  be  applied 
to  the  feet,  and  between  the  shoulders,  until  the  skin  become  a 
little  red ;  also  bathe  the  feet  in  warm  weak  leyTwater. 


152  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  patient  may  take,  as  often  as  he  is  thirsty,  half  a  tumbler 
of  the 

GREAT    FEBRIFUGE COLD    SPRING   WATER, 

also  lemonade,  if  it  can  be  procured,  or  a  little  vinegar,  sugar,  and 
water  combined,  and  cold  toast  or  barley  water.  This  course  regu- 
larly persevered  in,  will  cure  all  cases  of  bilious  remittent  fever  in 
our  Southern  and  Western  country,  unless  there  is  some  organic 
disease  of  the  system.  But  the  disease  is  usually  protracted  under 
the  best  treatment,  and  requires  perseverance  and  confidence  in  the 
means  used. 

Beware  of  making  any  changes  in  the  above  treatment  at  the 
suggestion  of  mineral  doctors,  or  of  meddlesome  and  gossiping  old 
women,  or  others.  And  should  medical  counsel  be  really  required, 
call  in  a  physician  of  the 

REFORMED    SCHOOL    OF    MEDICINE, 

any  one  of  whom  will  be  found  more  safe  and  successful  than  any 
others  in  the  treatment  of  these  diseases. 

See  "  American  Practice  and  Family  Physician,"  a  work  which 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  family. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

OF    DIGESTION. 

IN  order  to  repair  the  waste  of  their  bodies  which  is  continually 
going  on,  there  is  a  necessity  in  all  organized  beings  for  nourishing 
matter  to  be  taken  from  without,  to  be  added  to  their  system. 
Vegetables  depend  on  extraneous  matter  for  subsistence,  which  is 
taken  up  by  the  roots,  and  distributed  by  means  of  the  sap-vessels. 
But  the  grand  characteristic  of  animals,  is  their  possessing  a 
stomach,  a  central  cavity,  into  which  the  nourishing  matter  is  first 
put,  to  be  from  thence  taken  up  into  the  circulation,  and  so  distri- 
buted all  over  the  system.  The  stomach  and  bowels  constitute  the 
proper  digestive  apparatus,  and  several  other  organs  which  co- 


FIG.  30.  THE  OESOPHAGUS,  STOMACH,  AND  INTESTINES. 


/(Esophagus  or  gullet,  i  The  stomach,  h  The  pyloric  orifice,  where  the  food  enters 
the  intestines.  3  3  External  rim  of  the  liver,  k  The  hepatic  duct,  m  Cystic  duct,  n 
Common  duct,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two.  j  Gall-bladder.  The  arrows  represent 
the  intestines,  with  the  course  of  the  food. 


OF   DIGESTION.  153 

operate  in  various  ways  to  aid  it  are  the  assistant  digestive  appara- 
tus. Besides,  we  have  a  set  of  organs  for  preparing  the  food  for 
the  stomach,  tearing,  bruising,  grinding  and  mixing  it  with  fluid 
that  it  may  be  easily  swallowed.  It  is  most  convenient,  though 
perhaps  not  most  philosophical,  to  trace  these  parts  successively 
from  the  mouth  downward  ;  we  will,  therefore,  commence  with  the 
parts  concerned  in  digestion,  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  action 
of  swallowing,  and  trace  the  food  as  far  as  the  stomach.  From  the 
stomach  we  will  follow  it  down  into  the  small  intestines,  see  how 
it  is  mingled  with  the  bile  and  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  learn  how 
the  nourishing  parts  of  it  are  absorbed  and  carried  into  the  circu- 
lating mass,  and  how  that  part  which  is  useless  is  pushed  on,  until 
it  is  expelled  from  the  body. 

MOUTH. 

The  mouth  is  a  cavity  having  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  hemi- 
sphere, the  flat  surface  being  directed  downward  and  the  con- 
vexity upward.  Its  roof  is  formed  by  bone  ;  it  is  shut  in  at  the 
sides  and  front  by  the  muscular  parts  forming  the  cheeks  and  lips ; 
below,  it  is  enclosed  round  about  by  the  lower  jaw,  and  its  floor  is 
formed  by  the  tongue.  From  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  hangs 
down  a  conical  bag,  which  leads  into  the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  and 
the  nose  communicates  with  it  from  above.  Hence  is  the  reason 
that  we  can  breathe  equally  by  the  nose  or  mouth,  and  that  some- 
times if  we  are  taken  by  surprise  with  a  fit  of  coughing  while  swal- 
lowing, the  contents  of  the  throat  run  out  through  the  nose.  In 
order  to-  prevent  this  from  occurring  constantly,  there  is  a  curtain 
placed  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  which  we  see  on  looking  into  a 
glass,  and  which  rises  or  falls  according  to  the  necessity  for  its 
being  applied  either  above  or  below.  A  long  red  tassel  hangs 
down  from  the  centre  of  it,  nearly  touching  the  top  of  the  tongue, 
which  is  endowed  with  great  sensibility,  and  warns  the  curtain  to 
rise  whenever  the  food  comes  in  contact  with  it.  When  food  is 
about  to  be  swallowed,  it  is  rolled  about  in  the  mouth  and  mixed 
with  saliva,  till  it  forms  a  kind  of  ball,  and  when  it  gets  to  the  back 
of  the  mouth,  between  the  arches  of  the  palate,  there  is  felt  an  irre- 
sistible tendency  to  swallow.  The  curtain  now  rises  so  as  to  pre- 
vent any  of  it  passing  up  into  the  nose,  the  tongue  rises  against  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  so  as  to  keep  it  from  getting,  forward  again,  and 
the  only  course  left  for  it  is  to  pass  down  into  the  gullet.  It  is  a 
mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  food  falls  into  the  stomach,  tho 


154  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

fact  being  that  a  man  can  swallow  nearly  as  well  when  standing  on 
his  head  as  on  his  feet.  This  will  be  understood  if  we  suppose  an 
imaginary  division  of  the  gullet  into  a  number  of  rings.  When  one 
ring  contracts,  the  food  passes  down  into  the  next,  then  the  second 
contracts,  and  squeezes  it  down  into  the  third,  while  the  first  being 
still  contracted,  prevents  it  from  getting  up,  and  so  the  process  goes 
on,  regularly  downward,  until  the  ball  arrives  at  the  stomach.  And 
in  vomiting,  an  action  takes  place  precisely  the  reverse  of  this,  and 
the  food  is  squeezed  up  from  the  stomach  into  the  mouth,  although 
so  rapidly  as  to  seem  almost  instantaneous. 

TONGUE. 

The  tongue  is  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  chin,  and  has  a  muscle 
arising  from  this  point  and  radiating  through  it,  forward,  upward, 
and  backward,  which  can  protrude  the  tongue,  turn  it  upward, 
downward,  or  to  the  side,  render  its  surface  convex,  or  hollow  to 
serve  for  a  conduit,  as  in  drinking.  There  are  three  pairs  of  mus- 
cles actually  forming  the  substance  of  the  tongue,  and  not  less  than 
six  pairs  more  which  can  aid  in  its  motions.  The  whole  inner  sur- 
face of  the  mouth  is  lined  with  a  soft  mucous  membrane,  so  called 
because  it  pours  out  a  mucus  from  its  surface  to  lubricate  it,  to 
protect  it?  and  to  assist  the  food,  to  slide  easily  through  it.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  tongue  is  covered  with  many  delicate  papillae 
or  points  in  which  the  nerves  of  taste  end,  which  vary  in  appear- 
ance in  different  animals.  In  the  cow,  for  example,  they  are  much 
rougher  than  in  man  ;  in  the  lion  they  are  so  rough  as  to  be  capable 
of  peeling  one's  skin  off  should  he  attempt  to  lick  it ;  and  in  some 
of  the  marine  animals  which  swallow  living  shell-fish,  both  the 
tongue  and  the  gullet  are  covered  with  thickly  set  spines,  directed 
backward,  to  prevent  their  prey  from  actually  creeping  up  again. 

SALIVARY    GLANDS. 

Six  glands  are  placed  about  the  mouth  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing saliva  to  be  mixed  with  the  food;  two  very  large  ones  lie 
behind  the  ear,  in  the  hollow  between  the  lower  jaw  and  the  tem- 
poral bone,  so  that  the  motion  of  eating  squeezes  out  their  contents.. 
Their  ducts  run  forward  in  the  cheek,  and  perforate  the  mouth 
opposite  the  second  last  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw,  where  with  the 
tongue  a  small  soft  projection  may  be  recognised.  Two  others  lie 
on  each  side  under  the  tongue,  having  a  common  duct,  which  may 
be  seen  opening  on  the  fold  of  membrane  that  bridles  down  the 


OF   DIGESTION.  155 

tongue.  This  fold,  it  may  be  mentioned  here,  is  what  produces  the 
appearance  called  tongue-tied,  when  too  short.  The  tongue,  then, 
cannot  be  well  put  out  of  the  mouth,  and  the  infant  cannot  nurse 
conveniently.  A  little  time,  however,  relaxes  the  parts. 

One  or  other  of  the  ducts  which  open  below  the  tongue  is  subject 
to  become  stopped  up,  and  the  saliva  distends  it  into  a  soft- swell- 
ing, which  impedes  the  motions  of  the  tongue  in  the  actions  of 
speech  and  mastication.  But  the  most  annoying  thing  connected 
with  the  salivary  ducts  is,  when  one  of  those  running  in  the  cheek 
is  divided,  as  by  a  cut ;  it  is  then  difficult  to  heal,  and  the  saliva  is 
constantly  running  over  the  cheek.  The  quantity  which  is  lost  in 
this  way  in  such  cases,  is  very  great  indeed. 

TEETH. 

The  teeth  are  the  hardest  parts  in  the  whole  body.  In  the  adult 
they  are  thirty-two  in  number,  eight  upon  each  side  of  each  jaw. 
They  are  of  four  different  kinds  ;  in  front  there  are,  on  each  side, 
two  incisors  or  cutting  teeth,  whose  edge  is  like  that  of  a  chisel ; 
next  them  is  one  eyetooth,  which  is  pointed  ;  thirdly,  there  are  two 
small  grinders;  and  lastly,  there  are  three  large  grinders.  Tha 
teeth  in  the  two  jaws  do  not  exactly  meet ;  the  cutting  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw  overlapping  those  of  the  under,  while  the  grinders  just 
meet  one  another.  We  sometimes,  however,  see  people  whose 
under  teeth  project  beyond  their  upper,  giving  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance of  length  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face. 

The  crown  is  that  part  which  appears  above  the  gum,  the  body 
is  the  thick  part,  and  the  fangs  or  roots  penetrate  down  into  the 
socket.  A  cavity  is  seen  in  the  body  of  the  tooth,  which  is  occu- 
pied by  a  pulpy 'substance,  containing  some  blood-vessels  and  nerves, 
and  a  small  canal  is  seen  leading  from  the  cavity  into  each  fang, 
and  opening  by  a  minute  hole,  through  which  the  blood-vessels  and 
nerves  enter.  The  bony  part  of  the  tooth  which  projects  above  the 
jaw,  and  is  destined  to  meet  its  fellows,  and  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  fluids  in  the  mouth,  is  protected  by  the  enamel,  which  is  the 
hardest  substance  in  the  body.  It  is  thought  not  to  be  an  organized 
substance  at  all,  as  no  blood  or  sensibility  has  been  detected  in 
it,  so  that  it  seems  to  be  merely  a  protection,  to  prevent  the  re- 
mainder of  the  tooth  from  being  worn.  When  broken  off,  it  is 
never  replaced,  and  the  tooth  of  necessity  passes  into  decay. 

The  structure  of  the  bony  part  of  the  tooth  is  similar  to  that  of 
bone  elsewhere,  only  it  is  much  harder.  Hence,  by  referring  to 


156  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  chemical  structure  of  bone,  detailed  before,  it  will  be  under- 
stood how  the  teeth  are  pained  when  anything  hot  or  acid  is  taken 
into  the  mouth  ;  why  the  patient  who  is  to  use  acid  drops  is  always 
directed  to  suck  them  through  a  quill,  that  they  may  not  come  into 
contact  with  the  teeth,  and  how  the  teeth  blacken,  and  are  actually 
dissolved  away  in  persons  who  are  subject  to  acidity  of  the  stomach. 
When  a  hole  has  formed  in  a  tooth,  no  pain  is  felt  till  the  cavity  is 
reached,  and  the  nerve  exposed,  and  then,  as  almost  every  one 
knows  by  experience,  the  pain  is  most  excruciating.  Sometimes 
it  is  relieved  by  some  powerful  stimulant  dropped  into  the  tooth,  as 
the  essential  oil  of  cloves,  sometimes  by  the  recently  discovered 
substance  called  kreosote,  which  has  the  property  of  deadening  the 
nerve,  and  sometimes  the  tortured  victim  is  glad  to  appease  the 
tormentor  by  destroying  the  nerve,  by  the  introduction  of  a  hot 
wire.  If  the  cavity  is  not  large,  it  ought  to  be  stopped  ;  an  opera- 
tion which  generally  succeeds  in  preserving  the  tooth  for  a  long 
time,  by  excluding  the  air,  and  all  other  agents  which  could  act 
upon  it.  This  stopping  ought  to  be  done  with  gold  leaf,  or  some- 
thing of  that  kind,  and  by  a  respectable  dentist ;  and  no  one  should 
trust  his  teeth  in  the  hands  of  an  ignorant  dentist.  If  stopping 
the  tooth  does  not  prevent  the  recurrence  of  toothache,  the  offending 
member  must  be  removed  ;  and  this  last  resource  should  never  be 
deferred  so  long  that  the  stump  requires  to  be  dug  out  of  the  jaw; 
because  then  what  is  a  brief  though  painful  operation,  is  converted 
into  one  which  is  tedious,  and  often  insufferable. 

The  teeth  at  first  lie  deep  within  the  jaw  bones,  covered,  at  birth, 
by  the  thick  gum.  Their  rudiments  at  birth  are  very  small.  The 
crown  or  upper  part  of  the  tooth  is  formed  first,  then  the  body,  then 
the  enamel  is  deposited  on  the  crown,  and  lastly,  the  fangs  grow  as 
the  tooth  becomes  protruded.  When  the  jaw  of  a  new-born  child 
is  dissected,  a  pulp  is  found  for  each  tooth,  like  a  little  stool,  into 
which  blood-vessels  are  seen  running,  on  the  top  of  which  the  bone 
is  deposited,  and  after  the  tooth  has  attained  its  shape,  the  pulpy 
stool  shrinks  away  almost  to  nothing,  except  the  small  quantity  of 
cellular  tissue  which  conveys  the  vessels  and  nerves  into  the  cen- 
tral cavity.  The  whole  tooth  is  enclosed  within  a  delicate  mem- 
brane, which  becomes  ruptured  when  the  tooth  bursts  forth.  The 
gum  of  an  infant  has  a  sharp  line  running  along  it,  which  serves  it 
to  catch  anything  that  is  put  into  its  mouth  ;  and  this  line  becomes 
broader  and  flattened,  and  finally  disappears,  previous  to  the  erup- 
tion of  teeth.  The  order  of  eruption  is  generally  the  following : 


OF   DIGESTION.  157 

First,  the  two  central  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  appear,  then  the 
corresponding  ones  above.  After  this,  the  order  is  not  regularly 
backwards,  for  the  foremost  of  the  two  grinders  now  appears  below, 
then  that  above,  then  the  eye-tooth  below,  then  its  corresponding 
one  above,  and  lastly,  the  second  grinder  comes  through  about  the 
end  of  the  second  or  beginning  of  the  third  year.  When  they  do 
not  follow  this  order,  dentition  is  generally  attended  with  more  than 
usual  irritation.  The  period  when  the  teeth  appear  varies  much. 
"  I  know  one  lady,"  says  Douglas,  u  who  was  born  with  two  teeth, 
as  Richard  III.  says  of  himself."  It  is  rather  early  for  them  to 
appear  at  the  age  of  four  months,  more  commonly  seven  have 
passed  before  any  signs  of  uneasiness  are  discovered,  and  some- 
times even  twelve  or  thirteen.  A  good  deal  of  constitutional  dis- 
turbance generally  attends  teething :  the  mouth  is  hot,  the  gums 
itchy,  and  the  infant  rubs  them  with  anything  it  can  get  into  its 
hands.  For  this  purpose  nothing  is  so  good  as  the  common  ivory 
ring ;  all  manner  of  corals  and  bells  should  be  discarded,  as  they 
are  apt  to  injure  the  mouth,  or  even  to  be  thrust  into  the  eyes. 
The  bowels  are  apt  to  become  much  deranged,  and  require  constant 
attention. 

From  the  hardness  of  the  teeth,  they  are  not  capable  of  growing, 
so  as  to  fill  up  the  increased  size  of  the  jaws  in  after  years.  Hence 
we  see  a  growing  child  come  to  have  spaces  left  between  its  teeth, 
as  they  are  removed  from  one  another  by  the  elongation  of  the  jaw. 
About  the  seventh  or  eighth  year,  a  third  grinder  on  each  side  of 
each  jaw  makes  its  appearance,  which  is  the  first  of  the  permanent 
teeth,  and  never  changes.  When  this  one  is  rising  above  the  gums, 
the  central  incisors  of  the  under  jaw  are  becoming  loose.  If  a  jaw 
bone  be  dissected  at  this  period,  and  its  outer  part  be  filed  away,  a 
very  beautiful  preparation  is  obtained.  The  first  teeth  are  seen  in 
their  places,  and  the  second  set  are  seen  deep  in  the  jaw,  below, 
and  rather  behind  them,  ready  to  rise  up  and  supplant  them.  It  is, 
however,  quite  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  new  teeth  push  out 
the  old  ;  the  fact  is,  that  they  cannot  get  up  until  the  old  ones  be 
removed.  Preparatory  to  the  removal  of  the  old  ones,  their  fangs 
become  absorbed,  so  that  they  are  not  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length  ;  whereas,  had  they  been  examined  some  months  sooner, 
they  would  have  been  found  three  times  as  long.  I  have  a  very 
interesting  specimen  in  my  Museum  to  show  the  second  dentition. 
It  is  the  cranium  or  skull  of  a  child,  in  which  is  seen  the  second  set 
of  teeth  forcing  out  the  first. 


158 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


Somewhere  between  the  completion  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
years,  the  second  dentition  commences.  The  first  permanent  grinders 
appear,  and  the  central  incisors  fall  out  and  are  replaced.  In  three 
months  more,  the  lateral  incisors  follow.  In  from  six  to  twelve 
months  more,  the  grinders  give  way,  and  after  them  the  eye-teeth. 
The  grinders  are  succeeded  by  a  new  species  of  teeth,  which  do 
not  exist  in  the  milk  set,  called  the  small  grinders.  These  changes 
take  place  about  the  tenth  or  eleventh  year,  and  it  is  not  for  two  or 
three  years  more  that  the  second  of  the  permanent  grinders  makes 
its  appearance.  A  long  interval  now  succeeds,  and  the  jaw  acquires 
its  full  proportion,  and  about  the  nineteenth  or  twentieth  year  the 
wisdom  tooth  cuts  the  gum,  but  sometimes  not  till  even  a  later 
period.  \Yisdom  teeth  sometimes  appear  at  thirty.  The  grinders 
often  give  pain  in  coming  through,  on  account  of  their  broad  sur- 
faces meeting  with  much  resistance.  The  following  is  a  view  of 
the  teeth,  fangs,  and  nerves. 


STOMACH. 

j.  ne  stomach  is  a  bag  of  a  conical  shape ;  the  large  end  of 
which  lies  in  the  left  side  of  the  belly  immediately  beneath  the 
diaphragm,  and  the  small  end  at  the  hollow,  which  is  familiarly 
known  as  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  It  is  bent  besides  on  account  of 
its  passing  across  the  spine  ;  the  concave  border  being  directed 
backwards,  and  the  convex  border  forward.  When  the  stomach  is 


FIG.  35.  BLOOD-VESSELS  OF  THE  STOMACH. 


FIG.  36. 


The  above  figure  shows  the  Liver  turned  back.  The  Gall-bladder  i,  Stomach,  epiplon 
or  omentum  which  forms  a  sort  of  apron  in  front,  which  covers  the  intestines.  It 
shows  also  the  gastric  artery,  and  ggg  the  epiploic  branches,  i  shows  the  cystic  artery. 


OF   DIGESTION.  159 

nearly  empty,  the  convex  border  hangs  downwards,  and  when  filled, 
it  rises  forwards,  producing  sometimes  a  painful  feeling  of  disten- 
sion. This  is  most  felt  by  persons  who  are  troubled  with  flatulence 
after  taking  food.  In  such  persons,  if  one  finger  be  laid  over  the 
stomach  and  struck  with  one  of  the  other  hand,  it  will  sound  like  a 
drum,  in  consequence  of  the  quantity  of  air  which  is  contained  in 
it.  The  oesophagus  or  gullet  enters  the  great  or  left  end  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  pyloris  or  small  intestine  commences  at  its  smaller 
or  right  end.  These  two  orifices  are  upon  the  same  level,  so  that 
the  food  does  not  run  out  of  the  stomach,  but  can  only  get  out  of  it 
by  the  contraction  of  its  coats.  These  are  muscular,  as  indeed  are 
the  coats  of  the  whole  intestinal  canal,  and  are  particularly  strong 
at  the  smaller  end,  where  they  form  a  ring,  which  contracts  and 
completely  closes  the  communication  between  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  The  stomach  is  lined  with  a  velvety  mucous  membrane, 
similar  to  and  continuous  with  that  which  lines  the  mouth  and 
gullet.  This  membrane  is  full  of  minute  blood-vessels,  from  which 
a  mucous  fluid  is  poured,  which  serves  at  once  to  mingle  with  the 
food  and  assist  its  digestion,  and  to  protect  the  coats  of  the  stomach 
from  injury.  Accordingly,  when  any  irritating  substance  is  swal- 
lowed, mucus  is  immediately  poured  out,  which  envelopes  it,  and 
prevents,  as  far  as  possible,  the  evil  consequences  which  might 
ensue. 

GASTRIC   JUICE. 

Besides  the  mucous,  another  fluid  is  poured  into  the  stomach  by 
its  coats,  which  is  called  the  gastric  juice.  This  is  a  clear  ropy 
fluid,  of  a  saltish  taste,  possessing  the  power  of  dissolving  all  sub- 
stances which  are  fit  for  food.  It  has  no  effect,  however,  on  the 
living  stomach ;  but  we  often  find,  on  opening  persons  who  have 
died  suddenly,  with  a  quantity  of  the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach, 
and  no  food,  that  the  dead  stomach  itself  has  been  dissolved,  and 
that  a  large  irregular  opening  exists  in  its  back  part. 

After  a  meal,  the  stomach  becomes  agitated  by  a  constant  succes- 
sion of  gradual  contractions,  which  turn  the  food  gently  back  again, 
churning  it  and  mixing  it  all  well  together,  so  that  it  acquires  the  ap- 
pearance of  so  much  porridge  or  gruel,  the  different  aliments  that  have 
been  swallowed  becoming  so  blended  as  to  form  a  homogeneous  mass 
of  a  greyish  color.  It  is  turned  backward  and  forward  for  three  hours 
or  more,  until  the  delicate  sense  which  resides  in  the  orifice  leading 
into  the  intestines  is  satisfied  that  it  is  fit  to  pass  further.  The  con- 


160  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

stricted  ring  then  opens  to  let  it  through,  and  it  passes  into  the 
commencement  of  the  bowels.  But  such  is  the  delicacy  of  per- 
ception with  which  the  orifice  of  the  stomach  is  endowed,  that  it 
will  not  lefr  undigested  food  pass,  until  it  has  been  rolled  about  in 
the  stomach  for  many  hours,  and  presented  to  it  and  rejected  many 
successive  times.  Indeed  it  often  refuses  to  allow  such  food  to  pass 
at  all,  and  then  there  is  no  help  for  it  but  that  it  be  ejected  sum- 
marily by  vomiting. 

Let  us  now  inquire  into  that  part  of  the  process  of  digestion 
which  goes  on  in  the  stomach. 

DIGESTION. 

In  this  organ  the  first  of  those  changes  takes  place  which  fits  the 
extraneous  matter  swallowed  as  food,  for  being  received  into  the 
circulation  of  the  fluids  of  the  living  body,  and  for  becoming  a 
component  part  of  the  animal.  For  now,  the  gastric  juice,  acting 
on  the  semifluid  mass,  quickly  dissolves  out  the  digestible  part,  and 
entering  into  union  with  it,  produces  a  new,  thick,  and  turbid  fluid, 
which  has  been  called  chyme.  The  alimentary  mass  changes  its 
sensible  and  chemical  properties,  by  an  operation  peculiarly  animal, 
or  depending  on  the  existence  of  life.  The  change  is  not  strictly 
chemical,  for  we  do  not  find  anything  like  it  going  on  out  of  the 
living  body.  An.imal  or  vegetable  matters  in  any  vessel  possessing 
the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  stomach,  would  quickly  fall  into  fer- 
mentation, and  become  sour,  but  the  living  properties  of  the  stomach 
prevent  this.  No  acid  is  formed  in  the  stomach  in  the  healthy 
state  ;  but  when  it  is  weak,  and  its  nervous  action  is  deranged,  then 
the  symptoms  which  announce  the  diminished  power  are  the  extri- 
cation of  gas.  and  formation  of  acid,  with  oppression  and  uneasy 
sensations.  The  contents  of  the  stomach  consist  of  air,  partly 
swallowed,  partly  formed  in  it,  of  the  mucous  secretion  from  its 
coats,  and  of  the  chyme.  The  stomach  having  been  stimulated  by 
fulness,  by  wind,  and  still  more  by  the  peculiar  irritation  of  the 
food  undergoing  digestion,  the  muscular  coat  is  brought  into  action, 
and  the  contents  of  the  stomach  delivered  into  the  commencement 
of  the  small  intestine  (duodenum). 

HUNGER. 

We  are  solicited  to  take  food  by  the  uneasy  sensation  of  hunger, 
a  sense  which  appears  placed  as  a  safeguard  lest  the  body  should  be 
permitted  to  wear  out.  In  the  artificial  state  of  society  in  which 


FIG.  31.  CONTENTS  OF  THE  ABDOMEN  AFTER  REMOVAL  OF  THE  INTESTINES. 


L  L  L  L  Liver.    G  Gall-bladder.    P  P  Pancreas.    S  Spleen.    K  K  Kidneys.    B 
Bladder.    U  U  Ureters.    R  Rectum.    A  Aorta.    V  V  Vena  cava. 


OF   DIGESTION.  161 

we  live,  where  regular  hours  are  appointed  for  meals,  so  that  one 
shall  succeed  before  the  interval  after  the  preceding  shall  have  been 
so  long  as  to  produce  pain,  scarcely  any  one  knows  what  hunger 
really  is,  except  by  some  self-inflicted  abstinence.  Yet  though 
unaccustomed  to  be  felt  by  us,  there  is  an  unpleasant  sensation 
produced  by  want  of  food,  amounting  at  first  only  to  a  feeling  of 
emptiness,  lassitude,  and  indescribable  uneasiness,  but  gradually 
getting  worse  until  it  end  in  actual  pain,  as  if  the  inward  parts  were 
all  on  fire.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was  thought  that  the  internal 
surfaces  of  the  empty  stomach  rubbing  against  one  another  pro- 
duced hunger,  and  hence  arose  the  vulgar  phrase  of  "  taking  the 
wrinkles  out  of  your  stomach,"  by  satisfying  the  appetite  ;  but  that 
is  too  mechanical  an  explanation.  If  the  sensation  proceeded 
merely  from  such  rubbing  of  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  food  swal- 
lowed would  be  more  likely  to  aggravate  than  to  assuage  the  gnaw- 
ing of  hunger ;  to  excite  the  action  of  the  stomach  would  be  to 
excite  the  appetite  ;  and  an  irritable  stomach  would  be  attended 
with  an  insatiable  desire  for  food.  Something  more  than  mere 
emptiness  is  required  to  produce  hunger.  By  some  of  the  ancients, 
hunger  was  referred  to  the  weight  of  the  liver  dragging  down  the 
empty  stomach,  forgetting  that  the  liver  is  as  heavy,  and  will  drag 
as  much  when  the  stomach  is  full  as  when  it  is  empty.  By  others, 
with  more  probability,  it  is  supposed  to  proceed  from  the  action  of 
the  gastric  fluid  on  the  nerves  in  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  Hun- 
ger is,  like  thirst,  a  sense  placed  as  a  safeguard  calling  for  what  is 
necessary  for  the  system,  and  depending  on  the  general  state  of  the 
body.  Morbid  craving  may  proceed  from  many  causes ;  a  tape- 
worm in  the  bowels  has  occasioned  voracious  appetite,  and  ardent 
spirits  and  high  ^seasoning  excite  it  even  when  the  stomach  is  full ; 
but  natural  hunger  has  always  a  reference  to  the  wants  of  the  gene- 
ral system. 

THIRST. 

Thirst  is  a  sensation  seated  in  the  tongue,  throat,  gullet,  and 
stomach.  It  depends  on  the  state  of  the  membrane  which  lines 
these  parts,  and  of  the  fluids  which  naturally  moisten  it,  and  may 
arise  either  from  a  deficiency  of  that  fluid,  or  from  an  acrid  state  of 
it.  It  would  appear  to  be  placed  as  a  monitor  calling  for  the  dilu- 
tion of  the  fluids  by  drink,  when  they  have  been  exhausted  by 
perspiration  and  the  fatigue  of  the  body,  or  when  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  require  to  be  made  more  fluid,  the  more  easily  to  suffer 


162  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  necessary  changes  of  digestion.  The  feeling  of  thirst,  when 
carried  to  an  extreme,  is  said  to  be  much  harder  to  bear  than  that 
of  hunger,  and  the  most  dreadful  picture  is  given  of  it  in  some 
accounts  of  shipwreck,  particularly  in  that  published  of  the  horrible 
calamities  endured  by  the  crew  of  the  French  frigate,  the  Medusa, 
on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

The  changes  which  take  place  on  the  tongue,  in  consequence  of 
the  state  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  depend  on  its  intimate 
connexion  with  these  organs,  and  the  nervous  sympathy  which  is 
established  between  them.  The  state  of  the  tongue,  the  loose  or 
viscid  state  of  the  throat,  the  secretion  of  the  saliva,  the  softness  or 
huskiness  of  the  voice,  are  all  influenced  by  the  state  of  the 
stomach.  We  attend  more  to  the  effects  on  the  tongue  than  to  any 
of  the  rest,  because  it  is  more  accessible,  and  affords  us  a  sort  of 
index  to  the  state  of  the  stomach.  In  health,  it  is  clean,  red,  and 
moist ;  in  indigestion,  it  is  white  ;  in  disorders  of  the  bowels,  it  is 
more  or  less  thickly  furred ;  after  excess  in  wine  or  spirits,  it  is 
dry  and  chopped ;  and  in  typhoid  cases  of  fever,  it  becomes  quite 
black. 

A  great  many  absurd  experiments  have  been  performed,  with  the 
view  of  elucidating  the  nature  of  digestion,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
digestibility  of  various  kinds  of  aliments,  on  the  other.  The  most 
remarkable  are  those  of  Spallanzani,  a  celebrated  physiologist  of 
Modena.  At  the  time  when  he  entered  upon  his  researches,  it  was 
thought  that  this  phenomenon  was  only  a  species  of  trituration,  and 
that  the  chyme  was  merely  the  food  bruised  till  reduced  to  pulp :  but 
Spallanzani  showed  this  not  to  be  the  case.  He  caused  birds  to  swal- 
low articles  of  food  contained  in  tubes,  and  little  metallic  boxes, 
the  walls  of  which  were  pierced  with  holes,  so  as  to  preserve  these 
substances  from  all  friction,  but  not  to  withdraw  them  from  the 
action  of  the  liquids  contained  in  the  stomach,  and  he  found  that 
digestion  took  place  as  under  ordinary  circumstances.  He,  there- 
fore, justly  concluded,  that  the  gastric  juice  must  be  the  principal 
cause  of  the  chymification  of  food,  and  to  be  more  completely 
assured,  he  had  recourse  to  very  ingenious  experiments.  He  made 
crows  and  other  birds  swallow  little  sponges  attached  to  a  thread, 
by  means  of  which  he  withdrew  these  bodies  from  the  stomach  after 
they  had  remained  there  for  some  minutes,  and  had  imbibed  the 
liquids  contained  in  this  cavity.  Thus  he  procured  a  considerable 
quantity  of  the  gastric  juice,  which  he  placed  in  small  vessels  with 
the  food  suitably  divided :  he  took  care  at  the  same  time  to  raise 


OF    DIGESTION.  163 

the  temperature,  so  as  to  imitate  as  nearly  as  possible  the  circum- 
stances under  which  chymification  takes  place  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
some  hours  he  found  the  alimentary  mass,  submitted  to  this  artificial 
digestion,  transformed  into  a  pulpy  matter,  similar  in  all  respects  to 
that  which  would  have  been  formed  in  the  stomach  by  a  natural 
digestion;  thereby  proving  that  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice 
upon  the  food  is  the  principal  cause  of  its  transformation  into 
chyme. 

A  very  curious  case  has  recently  occurred  by  which  immediate 
access  was  had  to  the  living  stomach,  and  the  experiments  which 
were  performed  have  been  published  by  their  author,  Dr.  Beaumont, 
of  Plattsburgh,  in  this  State. 

A  young  man,  of  a  good  constitution,  when  eighteen  years  of 
age,  was  accidentally  wounded  in  June,  1822,  by  a  musket  loaded 
with  buckshot.  The  shot  tore  away  a  piece  of  his  left  side,  about 
a  hand's-breadth  in  extent,  making  a  hole  into  his  stomach.  For 
seventeen  days  everything  that  was  taken  by  the  mouth  passed  out 
at  the  hole  ;  but  after  that  period,  by  means  of  properly  adapted 
bandages,  the  food  was  enabled  to  be  retained.  The  wound 
gradually  diminished  until  it  became  of  the  size  and  nearly  of  the 
appearance  of  the  natural  anus  ;  and  about  a  year  and  a  half  after 
the  accident,  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  came  to  form  a 
valve  which  prevented  anything  from  running  out,  although  the 
finger,  or  a  tea-spoon,  or  a  tube  could  be  readily  introduced.  By 
two  years  after  the  accident,  he  had  completely  recovered  his  health 
and  strength,  and  Dr.  Beaumont  conceived  the  idea  of  making  use 
of  the  extraordinary  opportunity  thus  put  into  his  hands  of  examin- 
ing into  the  nature  of  digestion. 

When  the  stomach  was  empty  and  at  rest,  the  interior  of  its 
cavity  could  be  examined  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  and  '* 
food  and  drink  could  be  seen  entering  it,  through  the  ring  at  the 
entry  of  the  gullet.  The  solvent  power  of  the  gastric  juice  was 
ascertained  in  the  most  conclusive  manner.  Almost  every  variety 
of  aliment,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  when  submitted  to  the 
action  of  the  fluid  taken  from  the  stomach  when  fasting,  and  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  about  100°,  was  found  to  become  reduced  to  a 
paste  in  a  few  hours,  which  resembled  very  nearly  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  after  the  same  kinds  of  aliment  had  been  eaten.  The 
rapidity  with  which  substances  were  dissolved  by  the  gastric  fluid 
out  of  the  body,  was  always  in  proportion  to  the  purity  of  the  fluid, 
and  the  tenderness  and  state  of  minute  division  of  the  substances 


164  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

submitted  to  its  action.     Milk  and  the  white  of  an  egg  were  invaria- 
bly found  to  become  first  curdled  by  the  fluid,  and  then  dissolved. 

The  periods  required  for  the  solution  of  various  substances  in 
the  gastric  juice  out  of  the  body,  varied  as  follows  : — Sago  and 
tapioca,  boiled,  were  completely  dissolved  in  about  three  hours  and 
a  quarter;  fresh  bread,  in  about  four  hours  and  a  half ;  milk,  in 
about  the  same  time  as  bread  ;  calf  Vfoot  jelly,  in  about  four  hours 
and  three  quarters  ;  soft  boiled  eggs,  in  six  hours  and  a  half — hard 
boiled,  two  hours  longer  ;  oysters,  raw  and  entire,  seven  hours  and 
a  half,  stewed,  eight  hours  and  a  half ;  beefsteak,  in  eight  hours  ; 
boiled  beef,  in  nine  hours  and  a  half;  boiled  mutton,  and  raw 
pork,  in  eight  hours  and  a  half;  beef  suet,  boiled,  in  twelve  hours; 
mutton  suet,  boiled,  in  ten  hours  ;  cream,  in  twenty-five  hours  and 
a  half;  olive  oil,  in  sixty  hours.  In  these  experiments  the  gastric 
juice  employed  was  about  eight  times  the  quantity  of  the  substance 
to  be  dissolved.  It  will  be  seen  from  these  experiments,  that  fat 
and  oily  food  were  among  the  articles  which  presented  the  greatest 
resistance  to  the  solvent  powers  of  the  gastric  fluid  ;  and  this  Dr. 
Beaumont  found  to  be  the  case  in  the  stomach  as  well  as  out  of  it. 
Some  of  his  experiments  indicate  that  the  digestibility  of  this  sort 
of  food  is  facilitated  by  a  slight  admixture  of  bile  with  the  gastric 
juice,  and  that  very  generally,  when  aliment  containing  fat.  is  eaten, 
bile  is  found  in  the  cavity  of  the  stomach. 

I  will  now  transcribe  the  conclusions  which  Dr.  Beaumont  has 
deduced  from  his  experiments  on  his  patient. 

"  The  ordinary  time  required  for  the  complete  digestion  of  the 
food  received  into  the  stomach,  in  a  healthy  state  of  that  organ,  is 
generally  three  hours  and  a  half.  The  facility  of  digestion  is  modi- 
fied, however,  by  many  circumstances,  as  the  peculiar  nature  of 
individuals,  habit,  the  nature  of  the  food,  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  prepared  :  minuteness  of  division,  and  tenderness  of  fibre, 
wo\ild  appear  to  be  the  two  great  essentials  for  the  speedy  and  easy 
digestion  of  the  aliment. 

"  Albumen  (white  of  eggs),  if  swallowed  either  raw  or  very 
slightly  coagulated,  is  perhaps  as  rapidly  digested  as  any  article  of 
diet  we  possess.  If  perfectly  hardened  by  heat,  and  swallowed  in 
large  solid  pieces,  it  experiences  a  very  protracted  digestion.  Fi- 
brin (red  muscular  flesh)  and  jelly  are  affected  in  the  same  way  ;  if 
tender  and  finely  divided,  they  are  disposed  of  readily  ;  if  in  large 
solid  masses,  digestion  is  proportionably  retarded." 

Animal  fat  is  invariably,  and  very  quickly  rendered  fluid  by  the 


FIG.  32.  THE  INTESTINAL  CANAL. 


A  A  A  Under  surface  of  the  liver.  B  Gall-bladder.  E  Hepatic  Artery.  M  M  Sto- 
mach. V  V  Pancreas.  O  Spleen.  U  U  U  U  Colon.  T  Ccecum  and  Appendix  Ver- 
miformis.  W  Sigmoid  flexure  of  the  Colon.  X  Y  Rectum.  Z  Z  Muscles  of  the  Rec- 
tum. P  Sphincter  Muscle  of  the  Rectum.  R  Duodenum.  S  S  S  S  S  Small  intestines. 


OF   DIGESTION.  165 

heat  of  the  stomach,  and,  with  any  species  of  oily  food,  resists  for 
a  long  time  the  action  of  the  digestive  organ  and  its  fluids.  It  has 
already  been  noticed  above,  that  this  sort  of  food  generally  requires 
an  admixture  of  bile  to  render  it  soluble. 

"  Bulk  is  perhaps  nearly  as  necessary  to  the  articles  of  diet  as 
the  nutrient  principle.  They  should  be  so  managed,  that  the  one 
of  these  qualities  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  other.  Too  highly 
nutritive  diet  is  probably  as  fatal  to  the  prolongation  of  life  and 
health,  as  that  which  contains  an  insufficient  quantity  of  nourish- 
ment." 

A  commencing  state  of  putrefaction,  sufficient  to  render  the  mus- 
cular fibre  slightly  tender,  was  found  to  increase  the  digestibility  of 
most  kinds  of  flesh.  This  is  a  practice  which  every  housekeeper 
in  this  country  adheres  to,  though  without  knowing  the  principle 
on  which  it  is  founded. 

Some  kinds  of  vegetable  aliment,  generally  speaking,  he  dis- 
covered to  be  slower  and  more  difficult  of  digestion  than  animal.  Its 
solution  in  the  stomach  is  greatly  influenced,  however,  by  division 
and  tenderness  of  fibre.  Raw  vegetables  often  pass  through  the 
stomach  in  an  undigested  state,  while  other  food  is  retained  and 
fully  digested. 

The  thorough  mastication  of  the  food  is  essential  to  healthy 
digestion.  "  If  aliment,"  remarks  the  author,  "  in  large  masses  be 
introduced  into  the  stomach,  though  the  gastric  juice  may  act  upon 
its  surface,  digestion  will  proceed  so  slowly,  that  putrefactive 
changes  will  be  likely  to  commence  in  its  substance  before  it  will 
become  completely  dissolved.  Besides,  the  stomach  will  not  retain 
undigested  masses  for  a  long  time,  without  suffering  great  disturb- 
ance." Consequently,  eating  too  fast  impedes  digestion,  by  intro- 
ducing food  into  the  stomach  in  a  state  unprepared  for  the  actions 
of  that  organ  and  of  its  fluids.  Also,  if  food  be  swallowed  too 
rapidly,  more  will  in  general  be  taken  into  the  stomach,  before  the 
sense  of  hunger  is  allayed,  than  can  be  digested  with  ease. 

Overloading  the  stomach  with  food  is  invariably  found  to  inter- 
fere writh  the  regular  process  of  digestion ;  a  portion  remaining  for 
a  long  time  undigested.  This  very  soon  becomes  rancid,  or  runs 
into  the  acetous  fermentation  ;  and  if  not  rejected  by  vomiting, 
causes  pain  and  irritation  of  the  stomach,  and  other  distressing 
symptoms ;  or  if  it  be  permitted  to  pass  into  the  intestines,  its  pre- 
sence almost  invariably  gives  rise  to  colic,  flatulence,  or  even  more 
dangerous  affections. 


166  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

Condiments,  as  spices,  though  they  may  at  first  excite  the  action 
of  a  debilitated  stomach,  yet,  when  used  habitually,  never  fail  to 
produce  debility  of  that  organ,  and  in  this  manner  impede  digestion. 
Salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar,  are  exceptions,  and  are  not  obnoxious  to 
this  charge  when  used  in  moderation.  They  both  assist  digestion, 
— vinegar,  by  rendering  muscular  substance  more  tender — and  both, 
by  producing  a  fluid  having  some  analogy  to  the  gastric  juice. 
Spirituous,  and  probably  all  artificial  drinks,  cider  excepted,  impede 
more  or  less  the  digestive  process  ;  some  more  so  than  others,  but 
none  can  claim  exemption  from  the  general  charge.  Even  tea  and 
coffee,  the  common  beverages  of  all  classes  of  people,  have  a  ten- 
dency to  debilitate  the  digestive  organs. 

After  a  full  meal,  rest  should  be  taken  for  at  least  an  hour. 
After  that,  moderate  exercise  rather  aids  digestion,  but  severe  and 
fatiguing  exertion  always  impedes  its  performance.  An  experiment 
was  made  by  a  medical"  man  on  a  couple  of  dogs  of  the  same  litter, 
and  of  equal  health.  After  giving  them  a  good  dinner  of  flesh, 
one  was  taken  out  and  hunted  for  four  hours,  while  the  other  was 
permitted  to  lie  down  and  sleep.  They  were  then  both  killed ; 
the  hunted  dog  had  the  meat  in  his  stomach  quite  undigested,  the 
idle  one  had  it  quite  gone.  The  lesson  is  a  most  instructive  one. 

The  intestines  form  a  membranous  tube  nearly  six  times  the 
length  of  the  body,  about  five-sixths  of  this  length  belonging  to  the 
small  intestines,  and  about  one  sixth  to  the  large.  The  small  intes- 
tines are  the  canals  in  which  the  chyme  is  received  from  the  sto- 
mach ;  and  when  digestion  is  completed,  the  large  serve  chiefly  as 
receptacles  for  the  refuse  which  is  to  be  expelled  from  the  body. 

In  the  figure  the  small  intestine  is  seen  commencing  from  the 
smaller  or  right  extremity  of  the  stomach,  passing  to  the  right  side/ 
where  it  lies  close  below  the  liver,  and  receives  from  it  the  gall 
ducts  ;  then  turning  downward  and  to  the  left,  where  it  receives  the 
ducts  from  the  pancreas  ;  then  twisting  and  forming  a  great  number 
of  convolutions  which  lie  chiefly  in  the  middle  of  the  belly,  round 
about  the  navel,  and  finally  terminate  in  the  large  intestine  in  the 
right  side.  The  whole  intestine  is  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the 
velvety  membrane  which  lines  the  stomach,  and  which  is  constantly 
moistened  by  a  mucous  secretion.  The  thickness  of  the  gut  is 
formed  of  muscular  fibres,  arranged  in  two  layers,  the  outer  layer 
being  longitudinal,  and  the  internal  layer  circular.  The  effect  of 
the  gradual  contraction  of  these  fibres  is  to  squeeze  the  food  down- 
ward ;  and  if  the  belly  of  an  animal  newly  killed  be  opened,  the 


OF    DIGESTION. 


167 


bowels  are  seen  moving  in  the  manner  of  a  bunch  of  earthworms, 
whence  the  name  of  vermicular  motion,  which  has  been  given  to  it. 
The  gall  ducts  enter  the  small  intestine  about  six  inches  after  it 
leaves  the  stomach,  and  the  moment  the  bile  mingles  with  the 
chyme,  a  chemical  change  takes  place,  and  the  separation  of  the 
nutritious  parts  from  the  refuse  begins  to  go  on.  A  creamy-looking 
white  fluid,  called  chyle,  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  food  next  to 
the  mucous  membrane,  and  it  is  sucked  up  by  an  infinity  of  small 
vessels  called  the  absorbents.  The  use  of  the  great  length  of  the 
alimentary  canal  is,  that  every  part  of  the  food  may  be  turned 
about,  and  successively  be  presented  to  the  mouths  of  these  vessels, 
so  as  to  have  its  nourishing  particles  fully  removed.  The  food 
becomes  gradually  thicker  and  drier  as  it  passes  down,  and  is 
stained  of  a  yellow  color,  from  the  admixture  of  bile,  but  it  still 
remains  perfectly  sweet,  and  without  any  unpleasant  smell,  until  it 
gets  into  the  large  intestines,  where  it  puts  on  the  character  of  faeces 
or  useless  matter. 

Intestines,  Lacteals,  and  Mesentery  Glands. 


T  D  T  D,  the  chyle  duct ;  L,  lacteals  ;  M  G,  mesenteric  glands,  several  of  which  are  here  repre- 
sented ;  S,  spinal  column.    The  folding  structure  of  the  intestines  is  here  well  represented. 

The  large-  intestine  is  seen  in  the  figure  to  commence  by  a  blind 
end,  into  the  side  of  which  the  small  intestine  opens.  A  valve  is 
here  placed,  to  prevent  the  regurgitation  of  the  faecal  matter  into 
the  small  bowels.  A  curious  appendage,  about  the  size  of  a  large 
earth  worm,  is  seen  hanging  from  the  end  of  the  commencement  of 
the  large  gut,  which  in  man  is  merely  rudimentary.  In  purely 
graminivorous  animals,  the  intestines  are  much  longer  than  in  man, 
and  have  several  of  these  contrivances,  for  delaying  the  less  nutri- 


168 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


tious  food  which  they  subsist  upon,  until  all  its  useful  particles  can 
be  absorbed.  In  carnivorous  animals  again,  the  intestinal  canal  is 
short,  because  the  food  is  so  highly  nutritious,  that  digestion  is 
very  quickly  completed.  From  this  pouch,  then,  the  great  gut 
ascends  in  the  right  side,  crosses  over  the  belly  below  the  stomach, 
descends  in  the  left  side,  forms  a  twist  like  the  letter  S,  and  then 
turns  into  the  pelvis  to  open  outwardly  at  the  anus.  It  is  called 
the  colon. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  nourishing  part  of  the  food, 
the  chyle,  is  absorbed  from  the  intestines  by  an  infinity  of  small 
vessels,  having  a  close  affinity  to  veins.  Their  structure  is  very 
like  that  of  veins,  and  they  are  provided  with  valves,  which  prevent 

Lucteals,  Mesentery  Glands,  and  Thoracic  Duct,  running  up  the  spine  and  emptying  its  contents, 
the  purified  chyle,  into  the  left  subclavian  vein,  and  thus  mixing  with  the  blood 


r  ideal  vessels  emerging  from  the  mucous  surface  of  the  intestines.  2.  First  order  of  mesen- 
teric  glands.  3.  Second  order  of  mesenteric  glands.  4.  The  great  trunks  of  the  lacteals.  emerg- 
ing from  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  pouring  their  contents  into — 5.  The  receptacle  of  the  chyle. 
6.  The  great  trunks  of  the  lymphatic  or  general  absorbent  system,  terminating  in  the  receptacle 
of  the  chyle.  7.  The  thoracic  duct.  8.  Termination  of  the  thoracic  duct  at — 9.  The  angle  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  internal  jugular  vein  with  the  subclavian  vein. 


OF   DIGESTION.  169 

the  fluid  which  they  convey  from  taking  a  retrograde  course.  They 
are  not  more  than  the  thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are  so 
transparent,  that  they  are  not  visible  when  empty.  If  a  dog  be 
killed  about  two  hours  after  a  full  meal,  these  vessels  will  be  seen 
in  great  numbers  arising  from  the  bowels,  and  filled  with  a  white 
milky  fluid,  whence  they  receive  the  name  of  lacteals.  These  ves- 
sels unite  at  the  right  side  of  the  spine  into  a  trunk  about  the 
size  of  a  goose-quill,  which  at  length  pours  its  contents,  containing 
all  the  nourishment  of  the  body,  into  the  great  vein  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  near  where  it  joins  the  breast,  as  may  be  clearly 
seen  in  the  preceding  figure. 

There  is  another  set  of  vessels,  of  precisely  the  same  kind,  called 
lymphatics,  which  are  very  difficult  to  discover  in  dissection,  be- 
cause the  fluid  which  they  convey  is  not  milky,  but  transparent 
lymph.  These  arise  from  every  part  of  the  body,  and  have  for 
their  office  to  remove  the  worn  out  parts,  which  are  no  longer  ser- 
viceable, and  which  are  to  be  replaced  by  new  deposits  from  the 
blood.  The  lymph  is  poured  into  the  duct  which  has  been  spoken 
of  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  is  mixed  with  the  blood  in  the 
veins,  so  that  afterwards  it  may  be  expelled  from  the  body  through 
the  lungs,  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  and  the  skin.  The  lymphatic  and 
lacteal  vessels  are  included  under  the  common  name  of  absorbents. 
They  both  pass  through  glands,  which  are  roundish  bodies  about 
the  size  of  hazel  nuts,  in  which  the  absorbents  subdivide  and  re- 
unite, apparently  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  thoroughly  the  lymph 
and  chyle  together.  For  a  beautiful  view  of  the  lymphatics,  see 
steel  engraving  in  front  of  this  work. 

The  absorbent  vessels  and  glands  are  very  subject  to  disease  in 
those  individuals  who  are  of  a  scrofulous  temperament.  The  glands 
are  very  liable  to  enlarge,  inflame,  burst,  and  suppurate,  particularly 
in  the  neck,  arm-pits,  and  groins,  and  produce  sores  which  are  very 
tedious  in  healing.  Sometimes  in  scrofulous  children  the  larger 
branches  from  the  intestines  become  obstructed  before  they  arrive 
at  the  main  duct,  so  that  all  the  food  .they  eat  (and  they  generally 
have  voracious  appetites)  never  does  them  any  good,  because  it 
never  gets  into  the  circulation.  Such  children  are  generally  small 
and  puny,  with  sharp  thin  faces,  and  large  tumid  bellies.  Some 
years  ago,  a  person  by  the  name  of  Calvin  Edson  was  exhibited  in 
this  city,  called  the  "  living  skeleton,"  in  consequence  of  having 
been  reduced  so  low.  His  weight,  I  think,  was  about  forty 
pounds.  It  proceeded  from  a  disease  or  obstruction  in  the  thoracic 


170  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

duct,  which  proved  fatal,  ascertained  by  a  post  mortem  examina- 
tion. This  fact  shows  conclusively  the  course  of  the  chyle,  the 
only  nutritious  portion  of  the  food. 

The  whole  of  the  contents  of  the  belly  are  covered  with  a  thin 
shining  membrane,  called  the  peritoneum,  which  also  lines  the 
boundary  walls  o-f  that  cavity.  It  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
membrane  which  lines  the  chest  and  covers  •  the  lungs,  and  that 
which  surrounds  the  heart.  Its  smooth  polished  surface  is  evidently 
intended  to  permit  the  constant  gentle  motions  of  the  bowels  to  go 
on  easily,  without  our  being  at  all  sensible  of  them.  Its  inner  sur- 
face is  kept  moist  by  a  thin  liquid,  the  evaporation  of  which  is  the 
reason  why  the  body  of  an  animal  newly  killed,  is  seen  to  smoke 
when  opened  and  exposed  to  the  air.  When  this  fluid  is  poured 
out  in  too  great  quantity,  the  bag  of  the  peritoneum  becomes  dis- 
tended with  it,  and  constitutes  the  disease  called  dropsy.  It  is  cus- 
tomary by  physicians  generally  to  tap  the  patient,  that  is,  to  insert 
a  small  tube  with  a  sharp  point  into  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  so  as  to 
permit  the  water  to  run  out.  But  this  operation  affords  only  tem- 
porary relief.  This  membrane  is  exceedingly  liable  to  become 
inflamed,  and  when  inflammation  does  come  on,  it  runs  a  very  rapid 
course,  and  often  proves  speedily  fatal.  It  is  from  this  inflamma- 
tion that  many  of  those  females  sink,  who  perish  after  childbirth. 

Let  us  now  devote  a  page  or  two  to  a  notice  of  the  diseases  of 
the  alimentary  canal. 

The  stomach  is  rarely  -the  seat  of  inflammation.  It  is  so  accus- 
tomed to  have  all  manner  of  things  indiscriminately,  and  often  reck- 
lessly poured  into  it,  that  it  wrould  not  be  fit  for  its  place  in  the  body 
if  it  were  too  easily  inflamed.  Many  poisons,  however,  such  as  vitriol, 
arsenic,  mercury,  and  corrosive  sublimate,  produce  death  by  exciting 
violent  inflammation  of  the  stomach.  The  stomach  is  nevertheless 
very  subject  to  a  low  degree  of  inflammation  or  irritation,  which 
gives  great  uneasiness  to  its  possessor.  There  are  many,  particu- 
larly among  the  female  population,  and  those  not  in  the  lowest  ranks, 
who  can  scarcely  swallow  any  food,  without  its  being  succeeded  by 
a  feeling  of  distension,  and  a  sense  of  uneasiness,  not  amounting  to 
actual  pain,  but  as  distressing  as  if  it  were,  producing  headache, 
giddiness,  coldness  of  the  feet,  and  of  the  surface  generally,  acidity, 
with  eructations  of  gas,  and  sometimes  the  bringing  up  of  a  mouth- 
ful of  fluid.  These  annoyances  last  till  the  three  or  four  hours 
have  passed,  during  which  the  food  remains  in  the  stomach.  Com- 
plaints of  this  kind  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  remove  without  pro- 


FIG.  29.  THE  INTERNAL  PARTS. 


H  The  heart.    R  L  Right  Lung.    L  L  Left  Lunj 
rates  the  chest  from  the  bowels.    Livr-  Liver.    Stm- 
Intestines. 


.    D  D  Diaphragm,  which  sepa- 
stomach.    G  Gall  bladder.    Ill 


OF   DIGESTION.  171 

per  attention  to  diet.  The  food  introduced  must  be  as  easily 
digestible  as  possible.  It  is  not  easy  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  this, 
although  the  account  given  above  of  the  digestibility  of  different 
substances  will  furnish  some  data ;  but  the  stomachs  of  those  trou- 
bled with  indigestion  are  most  capricious,  and  we  sometimes  see 
them  reject  anything  simple,  and  evince  what  we  would  consider 
the  most  extraordinary  predilections.  Mild  laxatives,  tonics,  bit- 
ters, &c.,  all  may  take  their  turns  as  assistant  remedies.  Pustules 
brought  out  on  the  stomach  by  our  irritating  plaster  are  often  most 
beneficial. 

One  habit,  and  a  very  important  one  too,  and  which  is  much 
neglected,  and  often  induces  this  and  other  complaints  of  the  diges- 
tive organs,  is  a  neglect  of  proper  mastication  or  chewing  our  food 
sufficiently.  Tyrone  Power,  in  his  Travels  in  America,  speaking  of 
the  hasty  manner  in  which  the  Americans  eat,  thus  remarks  : — 
"  They  dart  their  food  with  the  rapidity  of  a  wolf  f"  Fowler,  in 
his  work  on  Physiology,  thus  remarks  on  this  subject : — 

HOW    TO    EAT  ;    OR   MASTICATION. 

"  Our  food  once  selected,  the  next  question  is,  how  shall  it  be 
eaten  7  With  teeth,  of  course,  never  with  the  stomach.  Nature 
forbids  our  throwing  it  into  its  receptacle  as  with  a  shovel.  By  ren- 
dering its  only  passage  way  small,  she  literally  compels  us  to  de- 
posit it  in  small  parcels.  She  has  also  furnished  us  with  a  mouth, 
set  all  around  with  two  rows  of  teeth,  which  fit  exactly  upon  each 
other,  and  are  every  way  adapted  to  crushing  our  food  to  atoms. 
Nor  can  we  swallow  our  food  without  its  being  more  or  less  chewed. 

To  persuade  as  well  as  to  compel  such  mastication,  nature  has 
rendered  it  highly  pleasurable.  Instead  of  food  being  tasteless,  she 
has  given  it  a  far  more  delicious  flavor  than  all  the  spices  of  India 
could  impart.  Yet  man  does  not  know  how  to  enjoy  a  tithe  of  the 
gustatory  pleasure  she  has  appended  to  eating.  Not  one  in  thou- 
sands know  how  to  eat !  Not  that  all  do  not  know  how  to  eat 
enough,  yet  few  know  how  to  eat  little  enough.  All  know  hew  to 
eat  fast  enough,  but  very  few  know  how  to  eat  slowly  enough. 
And  strange  as  it  may  seem,  few  know  how  even  to  chew,  simple, 
easy,  and  natural  as  this  process  is  !  Nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  in  every  thousand  eat  mostly  with  their  stomachs,  instead  of 
with  their  teeth  !  One  would  think  that  this  poor  slave  had  to  per- 
form two  or  three  times  its  wonted  task,  simply  to  digest  the 
enormous  quantities  of  heterogeneous  compounds  forced  upon  it, 


172  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

instead  of  being  compelled,  in  addition,  to  do  what  the  teeth  should 
previously  have  done.  Yet  this  practice  is  universal.  Is  eating 
indeed  so  very  onerous  a  task  that  it  should  thus  be  hurried 
and  slighted  ?  Most  men  pitch  and  shovel  in  their  food  in  great 
hunks,  mouthful  following  mouthful,  thick  and  fast,  which  they  give 
twist  or  two,  hit  a  crack  or  two,  and  poke  down  'in  a  jiffy  ;'  eat- 
ing in  five  minutes  as  much  as  would  take  a  full  hour  to  eat  well. 
Americans  generally  treat  eating  as  they  treat  impertinent  customers 
— dismiss  it  without  ceremony  for  something  appertaining  to  busi- 
ness. Yet,  than  the  due  feeding  of  the  body,  what  is  more  im- 
portant 1  Of  course  the  time  occupied  in  eating  should  correspond. 
Besides,  how  can  we  expect  to  enjoy  the  gustatory  pleasure  nature 
has  associated  with  eating,  unless  we  take  ample  time  for  such 
enjoyment?  Instead  of  dispatching  our  meals  to  get  to  business, 
we  should  dispatch  business,  and  eat  at  perfect  leisure.  We  should 
never  sit  down  to  the  table  in  a  hurry,  or  till  we  have  dismissed 
from  the  mind  all  idea  that  we  have  anything  else  on  hand,  and 
should  then  eat  as  leisurely  as  if  time  and  tide  waited  for  us.  The 
ox  and  horse  eat  as  quietly  as  though  their  food  was  their  all.  Only 
swine  guttle  down  their  food.  And  well  they  may  ;  for  their  tastes 
are  so  coarse  that  they  eat  what  is  most  loathsome,  and  derive  their 
pleasure  from  quantity  mainly.  Shall  man  imitate  the  swine? 
Shall  he  bolt  his  food  and  hurry  off  to  business,  and  thus  forego 
gustatory  enjoyment,  and  also  shorten  his  days ;  thereby  curtailing 
that  very  business  he  is  so  anxious  to  do  ?  Take  ample  time  to  eat 
well,  and  you  will  live  probably  twice  as  long,  and  this  protraction 
of  life  will  enable  you  to  do  more  business.  Eating  fast  is  the 
worst  possible  stroke  of  business  policy  you  can  adopt.  Let  busi- 
ness stand,  while  you  eat  with  the  utmost  deliberation.  Let  nothing 
hurry  you  to,  or  at,  or  from  the  table.  Make  eating  a  paramount 
business,  and  the  acquisition  of  wealth  a  trifling  toy  in  comparison. 
No  one  should  deposit  van  ordinary  meal  in  less  than  an  hour. 
How  foolish  to  cram  it  down  with  swinish  voracity  in  five  minutes ! 
Yet  sapheads  often  make  quick  eating  their  boast. 

Though  the  loss  of  gustatory  enjoyment— that  most  delightful 
repast — consequent  on  eating  fast,  is  great  and  irreparable,  yet  this 
is  one  of  its  smallest  and  lightest  evils.  It  breaks  down  the  sto- 
mach, and  thus  unmans  and  diseases  the  entire  system.  No  other 
cause,  if  even  a  combination  of  causes,  is  as  prolific  of  dyspepsia 
and  all  its  dire  array  of  evils,  as  this.  We  have  not  overrated  the 
importance  of  a  due  selection  of  food,  yet  its  proper  mastication  is 


OF   DIGESTION.  173 

far  more  important.  Eat  slowly  and  masticate  thoroughly,  and  the 
kind  of  food  eaten,  however  noxious,  will  rarely  break  down  the 
stomach,  but  eating  the  best  selection  of  food  fast  will  ruin  almost 
any  stomach.  How  can  the  gastric  juice  penetrate  the  food  unless 
it  is  mashed  fine  1  Food  deposited  in  chunks  defies  its  solvent 
power  fo-r  a  long  time,  meanwhile  irritating  and  weakening  its 
power ;  whereas,  if  it  were  well  crushed  before  it  entered  the 
stomach,  this  juice  could  penetrate  or  get  hold  of  it,  and  digest  it 
before  fermentation  occurred." 

DISEASES    OF   THE    STOMACH    AND    BOWELS. 

Cancer  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  stomach  after  the  middle 
period  of  life  is  passed ;  it  consists  in  a  thickening  of  the  coats 
of  the  stomach,  forming  a  growth  which  sometimes  can  be  felt 
even  from  the  outside.  It  produces  the  most  distressing  symp- 
toms, burning  heat,  constant  craving  for  food  and  drink,  with  in- 
ability to  retain  them,  and  at  length  the  patient  dies. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels  takes  place  after  exposure  to  cold,  or 
the  swallowing  improper  food.  Some  pain  marks  its  approach,  and 
generally  obstinate  costiveness,  and  requires  active  treatment. 

A  not  uncommon  complaint  connected  with  the  belly,  particu- 
larly among  the  laboring  population,  is  rupture.  This  consists  in  a 
portion  of  the  bowels  being  forced  out  from  their  natural  position, 
through  some  weak  point  in  the  walls  of  the  belly,  forming  a  swell- 
ing, covered  by  the  skin.  This  swelling  requires  to  be  pressed  up  in 
a  recumbent  position,  and  means  used  to  keep  it  from  coming  down 
again.  The  apparatus  used  is  generally  a  truss,  consisting  of  a 
steel  spring  covered  with  leather,  which  goes  round  the  waist,  having 
a  pad  at  one  end,  for  making  pressure  on  the  weak  part.  Some- 
times the  rupture  becomes  strangulated,  that  is  to  say,  it  swells  so 
that  it  cannot  be  replaced,  and  then  it  would  mortify,  so  that  death 
would  be  the  inevitable  consequence,  were  not  means  adopted  by 
which  the  stricture  is  dilated,  and  the  protruded  parts  returned. 

In  speaking  of  morbid  states  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  I  should 
not  omit  to  mention' the  curious  but  simple  means  by  which  poisons 
are  now  easily  withdrawn  from  the  stomach.  A  gum-elastic  tube, 
about  the  thickness  of  one's  little  finger,  is  passed  down  the  throat 
into  the  stomach,  and  a  brass  pump  which  holds  about  half  a  pint,  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  it.  Two  or  three  pints  of  warm  water  are  now 
thrown  into  the  stomach,  to  dilute  the  matters  there,  and  the  whole 
contents  are  then  easily  withdrawn.  The  syringe  can  act  either  as 


174  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

a  sucking  or  forcing  pump,  so  that  by  fresh  supplies  of  water  the 
stomach  can  be  thoroughly  washed  out.  In  extreme  cases,  this  may 
be  resorted  to,  but  in  general,  even  after  violent  poisons  have  been 
taken  to  commit  suicide,  as  laudanum,  &c.,  large  doses  of  an  emetic 
power  are  sufficient  to  remove  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL    INFERENCES. 

The  digestive  organs  are  very  subject  to  derangement  and  disease, 
such  as  indigestion,  costiveness,  &c.  This  proceeds  from  various 
causes,  such  as  error  in  diet,  too  great  a  quantity  of  food,  or  an 
improper  quality,  and  that  not  sufficiently  masticated,  and  swal- 
lowed like  the  hog — too  greedily ;  the  use  and  abuse  of  ardent 
spirits,  tobacco,  warm  fat  animal  food,  warm  drinks,  as  tea  and  cof- 
fee, calomel,  blue  pill,  Thompsonian  "  courses  "  of  medicine,  con- 
sisting of  lobelia,  capsicum,  #c.,  over  excitement  of  the  brain,  want 
of  exercise,  &c.  The  stomach  is  a  long  period  losing  its  tone,  and 
requires  a  long  time  to  restore  it.  The  remedies  consist  in  abstain- 
ing from  all  those  exciting  causes,  and  adopting  a  proper  course  of 
diet,  regimen,  and  medicine.  The  object  should  be  to  restore  the 
lost  or  enfeebled  tone  of  the  digestive  organs.  A  mild  cathartic 
may  be  taken  occasionally,  and  the  bowels  kept  regular  by  the 
Anti-Dyspeptic  Pills.  To  strengthen  the  stomach,  create  an  appe- 
tite, and  to  remove  that  horrid  depression  and  despondency  which 
renders  life  a  burden,  nothing  is  better  than  the  Restorative  Wine 
Bitters.  Bathing  the  surface  daily  with  tepid  or  cold  ley  water, 
followed  by  friction  with  a  coarse  towel.  In  general,  a  light  vege- 
table diet  is  preferable,  and  particularly  bread  made  with  unbolted 
wheat  flour,  and  which  should  be  at  least  one  day  old.  For  more 
particular  information  on  complaints  of  the  digestive  organs,  see 
Reformed  Practice. 

Here  let  us  devote  a  small  space  to  the  inquiry,  What  is  the 
natural  and  best  food  for  a  healthy  state  of  the  stomach,  animal  or 
vegetable  1 

Says  Fowler — "  Since,  therefore,  the  form  of  the  human  teeth 
creedes  from  that  of  the  carnivora  far  more,  even,  than  that  of  the 
monkey  and  ourang-outang  species,  which  are  confessedly  not  car- 
nivorous, therefore  human  teeth  were  not  made  to  eat  meat.  What 
proof  can  more  conclusively  attest  anything  than  this  establishes 
the  natural  diet  of  man  herbivorous  ? 

To  this  conclusion  nearly  every  sound  physiologist  has  been 
impelled,  by  this  dental,  and  other  kindred  arguments.  The  im- 


OF   DIGESTION.  175 

mortal  Linnaeus  sums  up  this  argument  thus  :  6  Fruits  and  esculent 
vegetables  constitute  his  most  suitable  food.'  Cuvier,  the  highest 
authority  on  this  point,  sums  it  up  thus  :  c  The  natural  food  of  man, 
therefore,  judging  from  his  structure,  appears  to  consist  of  fruits, 
roots,  and  other  succulent  parts  of  vegetables ;  and  his  hands  offer 
him  every  facility  for  gathering  them.  His  short  and  moderately 
strong  jaws  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  cuspidati  being  equal  in  length 
to  the  remaining  teeth,  and  his  tubercular  rnolares  on  the  other, 
would  allow  him  neither  to  feed  on  grass  nor  devour  flesh,  were 
these  aliments  not  prepared  by  cooking.' 

That  distinguished  physiologist,  Professor  Lawrence,  sums  up  an 
elaborate  argument  on  this  point  as  follows :  '  The  teeth  of  man 
have  not  the  slightest  resemblance  to  those  of  carnivorous  animals, 
except  that  their  enamel  is  confined  to  the  external  surface.  He 
possesses,  indeed,  teeth  called  canine,  but  they  do  not  exceed  the 
level  of  the  others,  and  are  obviously  unsuited  for  the  purposes 
which  the  corresponding  teeth  execute  in  carnivorous  animals.' 
'  Whether,  therefore,  we  consider  the  teeth  and  jaws,  or  the  imme- 
diate instruments  of  digestion,  the  human  structure  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  the  simise  or  monkeys,  all  of  which,  in  their  natural 
state,  are-completely  frugivorous.' 

Dr.  Thomas  Bell,  in  his  c  Physiological  Observations  on  the 
natural  food  of  man,  deduced  from  the  character  of  his  teeth,'  de- 
clares, that  *  every  fact  connected  with  human  organization  goes  to 
prove  that  man  was  originally  formed  a  frugivorous  animal.'  Cul- 
len  and  Lamb  took  similar  ground,  and  the  Abbe  Galani  ascribed 
all  crimes  to  animal  destruction.  Pope  protests  against  '  kitchens 
sprinkled  with  blood,'  and  insists  that  animal  food  engenders  crime. 
Plutarch  tells  us  that  Pythagoras  ate  no  pork,  and  wondered  what 
first  <  led  man  to  eat  carcass.' 

These  conclusions,  however  unpopular,  have  been  extorted  from 
every  rigid  physiologist  who  has  ever  examined  this  subject ;  and 
are  confirmed  by  the  length  of  the  alimentary  canal,  which  is  short 
in  the  carnivora,  long  in  the  herbivora,  and  long  in  man — about  six 
times  the  length  of  his  body. 

These  two  arguments,  derived  from  the  structure  of  the  teeth 
and  alimentary  canal,  of  themselves  completely  establish  the  dietetic 
character  of  man  to  be  vegetable ;  and,  taken  in  connexion  with 
those  converging  principles  already  adduced  and  yet  in  reserve, 
establish  this  anti-flesh-eating  argument  as  a  fundamental  ordinance 
of  nature. 


176  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE    CRUELTIES,    PESTS,    AND    NUISANCES. 

Humanity  condemns,  in  the  strongest  manner,  those  unheard-of 
cruelties  perpetrated  on  animals  while  killing  them,  in  order  to 
render  their  meat  less  bloody,  and  more  tender.  To  keep  the  feet 
of  calves  and  sheep  tied  together,  in  the  most  painful  posture  pos- 
sible— tumble  them  into  carts  on  top  of  one  another — bang  them 
about  as  if  they  were  so  many  boxes  and  barrels — keep  them  for 
days  together  without  a  morsel  of  food,  and  then,  after  all  this  liv- 
ing death,  to  hang  them  up  by  the  hind  feet,  puncture  a  vein  in  the 
neck,  and  let  them  hang  in  this  excruciating  torture,  faint  from  loss 
of  blood  and  struggling  for  life,  yet  enduring  all  the  agonies  of 
death,  for  six  or  eight  hours  ; — meanwhile  pelting  them,  to  beat 
out  the  blood  and  render  the  meat  tender,  with  might  and  main,  so 
that  every  blow  extorts  a  horrid  groan,  till  tardy  death  at  length 
ends  their  sufferings  with  their  lives — and  all  perpetrated  on  help- 
less, unoffending  brutes — is  a  little  worse  than  anything  else  except 
human  murder;  yet  it  is  but  the  legitimate  fruits  of  flesh-eating. 
Hear  the  piteous  wail  of  these  wretched  animals,  on  their  passage 
from  the  farmyard  to  the  slaughter-house ;  see  their  upturned  eyes 
rolling  in  agony ;  witness  the  desperate  struggles,  and  hear  the  ter- 
rible bellowings  of  the  frantic  bullock  wrho  apprehends  his  fate,  as 
he  is  drawrn  up  to  the  fatal  bull-ring ;  or  even  look  at  the  awful 
expression  of  all  amputated  heads,  as  seen  in  market,  or  carried 
through  the  streets,  and  then  say  whether  the  slaughtering  of  ani- 
mals is  not  a  perfect  OUTRAGE  on  every  feeling  of  humanity — every 
sentiment  of  right!"  And  yet  all  this  is  practised  by  great  pro- 
fessors of  religion.  Zealots  ?  What  hypocrites  ! 

In  concluding  this  chapter  on  the  digestive  organs,  I  deem  it  not 
irrelevant  or  out  of  place  to  advert  to  the  common  and  injurious 
effect  of  mercury  in  the  stomach  and  system  generally,  which  I  will 
do  in  the  language  of  Dr.  S.  Chapman,  of  Philadelphia,  late  pro- 
fessor in  the  Medical  University  there.  When  I  delivered  my 
popular  lectures  in  that  city,  the  venerable  old  gentleman  sent  me, 
through  his  son,  his  respects,  and  some  of  his  writings,  with  a  very 
friendly  invitation  to  visit  him. 

THE    USE    OF.  POISONS,    CALOMEL,    AND    DEPLETIONS. 

The  very  principle  upon  which  they  act,  is  their  destruction  of 
life.  Taken  in  health,  they  induce  sickness ;  much  more  aggravate 
it.  And  their  reputation  for  curing  diseases  is  due  mainly  to  absti- 
nence from  food,  perspiration,  and  emptying  the  stomach,  all  of 


OF   DIGESTION.  177 

which  can  be  effected  by  processes  entirely  harmless.  Their  effect 
upon  the  teeth  alone  brands  them  with  unequivocal  condemnation  ; 
for  whatever  injures  them  first  disorders  the  stomach.  Their  decay 
foretokens  incipient  dyspepsia.  Hence,  since  they  are  always  im- 
paired by  these  medicines — and  whoever  has  taken  poison  is  a  living 
witness  of  this  fact — they  of  course  always  enfeeble  the  stomach. 

Narrowing  down  our  observation  to  that  popular  medicine  CALO- 
MEL. It  powerfully  stimulates  the  liver,  but  stimulates  by  POISON- 
ING it.  Hence  liver  affections  almost  always  follow  its  administra- 
tion— always  except  when  both  stomach  and  liver  are  extra 
powerful.  Dyspepsia  follows  its  use  almost  as  surely  as  sunrise 
daylight,  because  induced  thereby.  Let  observation,  the  more 
extensive  the  better,  pronounce  the  verdict.  Language  can  never 
adequately  portray  its  ravages  on  health  and  life.  On  this  point 
hear  Professor  Chapman,  of  Philadelphia,  to  his  class : — 

"  GENTLEMEN: — If  you  could  see  what  I  almost  daily  see  in  my  private  practice  in 
this  city,  persons  from  the  South,  in  the  very  last  stages  of  wretched  existence,  ema- 
ciated to  a  skeleton,  with  both  tables  of  the  skull  almost  completely  perforated  in  many 
places,  the  nose  half  gone,  with  rotten  jaws,  ulcerated  throats,  breaths  most  pestiferous 
more  intolerable  than  poisonous  upas,  limbs  racked  with  the  pains  of  the  Inquisition, 
minds  as  imbecile  as  the  puling  babe,  a  grievous  burden  to  themselves  and  a  disgusting 
spectacle  to  others,  you  would  exclaim  as  I  have  often  done,  '  O !  the  lamentable  want 
of  science  that  dictates  the  abuse  (use)  of  that  noxious  drug  calomel !'  Gentlemen,  it  is 
a  disgraceful  reproach  to  the  profession  of  medicine,  it  is  quackery,  horrid,  unwarranted 
murderous  quackery.  "What  merit  do  gentlemen  of  the  South  flatter  themselves  they 
possess  by  being  able  to  salivate  a  patient?  Cannot  the  veriest  fool  in  Christendom 
salivate — give  calomel  1  But  I  will  ask  another  question.  Who  can  stop  its  career  a 
will,  after  it  has  taken  the  reins  in  its  own  DESTRUCTIVE  AND  UNGOVERNABLE  HANDS'? 
rfe  who,  for  an  ordinary  cause,  resigns  the  fate  of  his  patient  to  mercury,  is  a  vile 
enemy  to  the  sick ;  and  if  he  is  tolerably  popular,  will  in  one  successful  season  have 
paved  the  way  for  the  business  of  life  ;  for  he  has  enough  to  do  ever  afterwards  to  stop 
the  mercurial  breach  of'the  constitutions  of  his  dilapidated  patients.  He  has  thrown 
himself  in  fearful  proximity  to  death,  and  has  now  to  fight  him  at  arm's-length  as  long 
as  the  patient  maintains  a  miserable  existence." 

Dr.  Graham,  of  Edinburgh,  in  speaking  of  mercurial  medicines, 

says : — 

"  They  affect  the  human  constitution  in  a  peculiar  manner,  taking,  so  to  speak,  an 
iron  grasp  of  all  its  systems,  and  penetrating  even  to  the  bones,  by  which  they  not  only 
change  the  healthy  action  of  its  vessels,  and  general  structure,  but  greatly  impair  and 
destroy  its  energies ;  so  that  their  abuse  is  rarely  overcome.  When  the  tone  of  the 
stomach,  intestines,  or  nervous  system  generally,  has  been  once  injured  by  this 
mineral,  according  to  my  experience  (and  I  have  paid  considerable  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject), it  could  seldom  afterwards  be  restored.  I  have  seen  many  persons  to  whom  it  has 
been  largely  given  for  the  removal  of  different  complaints,  who,  before  they  took  it, 
knew  not  what  indigestion  and  nervous  depression  meant,  only  by  the  description  of 
others  -}  but  they  iiave  since  become  experimentally  acquainted  with  both,  for  they  now 
12 


178  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

constantly  complain  of  weakness  and  irritability  of  the  digestive  organs,  of  frequent 
lowness  of  spirits  and  impaired  strength ;  all  of  which,  it  appears  to  me,  they  will  ever 
be  sensible  of.  Instances  of  this  description  abound.  Many  of  the  victims  of  this  prac- 
tice are  aware  of  this  origin  of  their  permanent  indisposition,  and  many  more,  who  are 
at  present  unconscious  of  it,  might  here  find,  upon  investigation,  a  sufficient  cause  for 
their  sleepless  nights  and  miserable  days.  We  have  often  had  every  benevolent  feeling 
called  into  painful  exercise,  upon  viewing  patients  already  exhausted  by  protracted  ill- 
ness, groaning  under  the  accumulated  miseries  of  an  active  course  of  mercury,  and  by 
this  for  ever  deprived  of  perfect  restoration.  A  barbarous  practice,  the  inconsistency, 
folly,  and  injury  of  which  no  words  can  sufficiently  describe." 

This  is  the  testimony  of  its  FRIENDS — of  distinguished  members 
of  the  medical  FACULTY — and  is  true  of  the  PRINCIPLE  on  which 
calomel  and  all  mineral  poisons  act.  And  the  more  virulent  the 
poison,  the  worse.  Those  who  take  them  may  recover,  yet  it  will 
be  in  SPITE  of  both  disease  and  medicine.  And  their  recovery  will 
be  slow,  and  constitutions  impaired. 

"  But,"  retorts  one,  "  I  took  calomel,  arsenic,  quinine,  and  other 
condensed  poisons,  was  immediately  relieved,  and  more  robust 
afterwards  than  before."  Aye,  but  how  long  did  you  remain  so  1 
In  a  few  months  your  stomach  became  impaired,  and  various  aches, 
to  which  you  were  before  a  stranger,  afflicted  you.  Still,  all  are 
quite  welcome  to  swallow  all  the  rank  poisons  they  please,  but  for 
one,  however  sick,  I  should  rely  on  other  remedies,  particularly 
perspiration. 

Scarcely  less  detrimental  than  these  poisons  is  that  draining  of 
the  life's  blood  which  generally  accompanies  it.  It  does  not  extract 
the  disease,  or  at  least  only  in  proportion  as  it  withdraws  life  itself, 
and  repeated  depletion  diverts  the  vital  energies  from  brain  and 
muscle  to  the  extra  manufacture  of  blood. 

A  summary  of  these  medicinal  principles  shows  that  we  place 
far  less  reliance  on  medicines,  even  vegetable,  as  restorative  agents, 
than  on  physiological  prescriptions.  Obey  the  laws  of  health,  and 
we  need  not  be  sick,  and  when  sick  a  return  to  this  obedience  is 
the  most  direct  road  to  health.  Still  the  existence  of  medicines 
shows  that  they  should  be  taken.  Yet  why  in  the  present  highly 
condensed  form  1  Why  not  in  that  diluted  form  in  which  we  find 
them  in  nature  1  In  short,  why  not  take  them  along  with  our 
food'?* 

The  following  figure  represents  the  appearance  of  a  person  under 
the  influence  of  mercury,  in  this  city,  to  whom  the  author  was 
called  in  consultation.  The  tongue  protruded  from  the  mouth,  and 

*  Fowler. 


SECRETION    AND    EXCRETION. 


179 


prevented  him  from  speaking ;  it  was  enormously  enlarged  and 
burst  open,  jaws  swollen,  &c.,  &c.  Over  one  hundred  leeches  had 
been  applied  to  reduce  the  inflammation. 


CHAPTER   X. 

SECRETION  AND  EXCRETION. 

WE  have  seen,  in  the  preceding  chapters,  that  there  are  arrange- 
ments for  circulating  the  blood  and  for  keeping  it  pure.  The  great 
object  in  these  arrangements  seems  to  be,  that  the  substances  re- 
quired in  the  different  parts  of  the  system  may  be  separated  from 
the  blood  in  a  proper  state.  There  is  a  class  of  bodies,  known  by 
the  name  of  glands,  whose  office  appears  to  be  principally  to  form 
different  secretions.  Thus,  the  liver  is  a  gland,  which  is  said  tq 


180 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 


secrete  (separate)  bile  :  the  salivary  glands,  we  have  seen,  secrete 
saliva ;  and  so  on  with  others.  It  would  be  a  mistake,  however, 
to  suppose  that  secretion  is  performed  only  by  glands,  for  thin  mem- 
branes, without  any  glandular  structure,  produce  numerous  secre- 
tions ;  and  the  deposition  of  the  solid  parts  of  the  body  takes  place 
without  the  intervention  of  anything  like  glands.  It  seems  to  be 
the  capillary  vessels,  themselves,  in  these  cases,  that  are  employed ; 
and  even  in  glands,  however  minutely  we  examine  their  structure, 
there  can  be  detected  almost  nothing  but  endless  subdivisions  of 
circulating  vessels,  and  ducts  for  collecting  and  carrying  off  the 
secreted  fluid. 

Intimate  structure  of  a  Composite  Gland  [the  Parotid]. 


Representation  of  a  Kidney 


The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body.  We  have  seen  that 
it  secretes .  the  bile,  which  probably  serves  important  purposes  in 
digestion.  The  numerous  ducts  of  the  liver  unite  and  form  one 
large  duct,  called  the  hepatic  duct,  from  which  the  bile  passes  into 
the  common  duct,  or  into  the  gall-bladder,  to  be  poured,  when  re- 
quired- into  the  upper  part  of  the  intestinal  canal.  The  bile  is  an 


SECRETION   AND    EXCRETION.  181 

alkaline  fluid,  which  contains,  besides  other  substances,  a  peculiar 
resinous  principle.     Unlike  other  secretions,  it  is  formed  from  the 
venous  blood.     The  whole  veins  of  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
instead  of  going  directly  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  first  unite  to 
form  one  great  trunk  (vena  portae),  which  divides,  like  an  artery,  in 
the   substance  of  the  liver;  and  these  branches,  by  which  the  bile 
is  secreted,  again  unite,  and  join  the  veins  going  to  the  heart  in  the 
ordinary  way.     In  some  species  the  veins  going  to  the  kidneys  have 
a  similar  distribution.     From  this,  and  for  various  other  reasons,  it  is 
strongly  conjectured  that  the  liver  assists  the  lungs  in  purifying  the 
venous  blood,  by  depriving  it  of  a  portion  of  its  carbon ;    and, 
accordingly,  we  always  notice  the  liver  larger  in  animals  in  propor- 
tion as  the  activity  of  their  lungs  diminishes.     The  carbon  unites 
with  oxygen,  and  forms  carbonic  acid  in  the  lungs,  but  it  seems  to 
escape  from  the  liver  in  union  with  another  gas  called  hydrogen, 
forming  the  resinous  and  other  principles  of  the  bile.     We  have 
before  stated  that  less  oxygen  is  consumed,  and  of  course  less  car- 
bonic acid  is  produced,  when  the  temperature  is  high,  than  when  it 
is  low.      Hence,  probably,   a  chief  cause  of  the  diseases  of  the 
liver  we  are  liable  to  in  warm  climates ;  for  if  less  carbon  be  given 
off  at  the  lungs,  more  will  have  to  be  secreted  by  the  liver ;  and 
any  part  required  to  do  more  than  its  ordinary  duty,  is  liable  to 
become  deranged.     It  is  thought  about  six  or  eight  ounces  of  bile 
are  ordinarily  secreted  daily.     Another  analogous  substance  called 
urea,  is  secreted  by  the  kidneys,  which  are  glands  that  also  proba- 
bly assist  in  purifying  the  blood.     It  is  probable  that  both  the 
resinous   matter  in  the  bile,  and  the  urea  in  the  urine,  exist  ready 
formed  in  the  blood,  and  are  merely  separated  by  their  respective 
glands ;  as,  when  the  kidneys  of  dogs  have  been  taken  away,  urea 
has  been  detected  in  the  blood,  which  could  not  be  the  case  if  the 
kidneys  formed  it.     It  sometimes  happens,  especially  in  drunkards, 
that  one  or  both  of  these  glands  become  diseased,  and  are  incapable 
of  separating  the  peculiar  fluids  mentioned;  and  then  these,  being 
retained  in  the  system,  act  as  poisons,  producing  insensibility  and 
death.     In  the  case  of  the  liver,  this  forms  one  cause  of  jaundice  ; 
but  jaundice  is  more  commonly  caused  by  an  obstruction  to  the  flow 
of  the  bile  through  its  ducts.     The  passage  of  gall-stones  (which 
are  only  bile  solidified)  from  the  gall-bladder  through  the  gall  or 
common  ducts,  is  a  common  cause  of  obstruction.     When  the  sub- 
stance of  the  liver  becomes  diseased,  the  flow  of  blood  through  its 


182  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

veins  is  also  often  obstructed,  and  this  very  generally  gives  rise  to 
the  liver  complaint  and  dropsy. 

What  has  been  said  must  suffice  in  regard  to  the  larger  glands  ; 
smaller  ones  are  scattered  in  almost  every  part  of  the  body.  The 
whole  extent  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  of  the  skin,  is  found  to 
be  studded  with  bodies  having  a  glandular  structure,  and  producing 
secretions. 

Some  secretions  are  evidently  produced  only  in  particular  emer- 
gencies, as  we  see  with  the  increased  secretion  of  bony  matter  when 
a  limb  is  broken  ;  other  secretions  are  uncommon  in  their  nature, 
as  in  the  case  of  such  fishes  as  the  torpedo  or  of  the  firefly,  the 
former  of  which  can  produce  at  pleasure  powerful  electrical  dis- 
charges, and  the  latter  a  substance  that  gives  out  light ;  while  in 
other  instances,  again,  secretions  become  unusual  in  their  situation, 
or  of  a  morbid  kind.  Of  a  secretion  unusual  in  its  situation,  a 
curious  instance  occurred  some  years  ago  in  France.  A  woman 
who  was  suckling  had  the  secretion  of  milk  transferred  from  her 
breasts  to  one  of  her  lower  extremities,  from  which  her  child  con- 
tinued to  be  supplied.  Of  morbid  secretions  we  have  examples  in 
ossification  of  the  valves  of  the  heart,  in  consumption,  in  cancerous, 
brainy,  and  other  tumors,  and,  unfortunately,  in  too  many  other 
cases. 

The  secretions  are  much  influenced  by  our  mental  states.  Every 
one  has  felt  the  flow  of  saliva  increased  from  savory  odors,  or  the 
flow  of  tears  from  distressing  feelings.  A  cheerful  state  of  mind  is 
peculiarly  favorable  to  the  proper  performance  of  the  function  of 
secretion  ;  and  we  therefore  learn  how  important  it  is  to  avoid  such 
things  as  distract,  or  agitate,  or  harass  us  ;  and  yet  how  un- 
avoidable ! 

As  to  the  agent  which  produces  or  directs  the  different  secretions, 
we  have  no  very  accurate  information.  In  one  instance,  at  least, 
Dr.  W.  Philip  found  that  its  place  could  be  supplied  by  galvanism. 
He  cut  the  principal  nerves  going  to  the  stomach,  and  the  secretion 
of  gastric  juice  was  completely  stopped  ;  but  the  secretion  was 
restored  when  a  galvanic  pile  was  made  to  communicate  with  the 
lower  extremities  of  the  nerves.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  dis- 
covered that  the  operations  of  galvanism  are  much  more  various 
and  subtle  than  was  formerly  supposed,  and  it  therefore  seems  not 
unreasonable  to  conjecture  that  its  agency  may  be  important  also  in 
secretion. 


SECRETION   AND    EXCRETION.  183 

GENERAL    SUMMARY   OF   THE    EXCRETING   PROCESSES. 

We  have  now  passed  in  review  the  various  processes,  by  which 
the  products  of  the  disintegration  or  the  animal  tissues  are  carried 
off ;  and  we  have  seen  that  the  necessity  for  their  removal  is  much 
more  urgent  than  for  their  replacement.  A  cold-blooded  animal 
may  subsist  for  some  weeks,  or  even  months,  without  a  fresh  supply 
of  food  ;  the  waste  of  its  tissues  being  so  small,  if  it  remain  in  a 
state  of  rest,  as  to  be  quite  compatible  with  the  continuance  of  its 
life  ;  and  a  warm-blooded  animal  may  live  for  many  days,  or  even 
weeks,  provided  that  it  has  in  its  body  a  store  of  fat  sufficient  to 
keep  up  its  heat  by  the  combustive  process.  But  in  either  case,  if 
the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  by  the  lungs,  the  elimination  of 
biliary  matter  by  the  liver,  the  separation  of  urea  or  uric  acid  by  the 
kidneys,  or  the  withdrawal  of  putrescent  matter  by  the  intestinal 
glandules,  be  completely  checked,  a  fatal  result  speedily  ensues ; — 
more  speedily  in  warm-blooded  animals  than  in  those  which  cannot 
sustain  a  high  independent  temperature,  on  account  of  the  greater 
proneness  to  decomposition  in  the  bodies  of  the  former,  than  in 
those  of  the  latter ; — and  more  speedily  in  the  latter,  when  their 
bodies  are  kept  at  an  elevated  temperature  by  the  warmth  of  the 
surrounding  medium,  than  when  the  degree  of  heat  is  so  low,  that 
there  is  little  proneness  to  spontaneous  change  in  the  substance  of 
their  bodies. 

It  may  be  taken  as  a  general  principle,  in  regard  to  the  excreting 
processes  (including  respiration),  that  they  have  a  three-fold  pur- 
pose ; — in  the  first  place,  to  carry  off  the  normal  results  of  the  waste 
or  disintegration  of  the  solid  tissues,  and  of  the  decomposition  of 
the  fluids ; — in  the  second  place,  to  draw  off  the  superfluous  ali- 
mentary matter,  which,  though  received  into  the  circulating  current, 
is  not  converted  into  solid  tissue,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
demand  for  it ; — and  in  the  third  place,  to  carry  off  the  abnormal 
products,  which  occasionally  result  from  irregular  or  morbid  changes 
in  the  system.  Thus  by  the  lungs  are  excreted  a  large  amount  of 
carbon,  and  some  hydrogen,  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  the 
tissues,  especially  the  nervous  and  muscular ;  the  same  elements, 
in  animals  that  take  in  a  large  proportion  of  farinaceous  or  oleagi- 
nous aliment,  may  be  derived  immediately  from  the  food,  without 
any  previous  conversion  into  solid  tissue  ;  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  respiratory  function  is  also  an  important  means  of 
purifying  the  blood  from  various  deleterious  matters,  either  intro- 
duced from  without  (such  as  narcotic  poisons),  or  generated  within 


N 


184  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  body  (such  as  the  poison  of  fever*).  And  it  is  important  to 
bear  this  last  circumstance  in  mind ;  since  it  enables  us  to  understand 
how,  if  time  be  given,  the  system  frees  itself  from  such  noxious 
substances  ;  and  points  out  the  duty  of  the  medical  attendant  to  be 
rather  that  of  supporting  the  powers  of  the  body  by  judiciously 
devised  means,  and  of  aiding  the  elimination  of  the  morbid  matter 
through  the  lungs  and  skin  by  a  copious  supply  of  pure  air,  than  of 
interfering  more  actively  to  promote  that  which  Nature  is  already 
effecting  in  the  most  advantageous  manner. 

[Suitable  views  of  the  liver  will  be  found  in  Lizars'  Colored  Plates,  page  86,  and  of 
the  kidneys,  at  page  88.] 


CHAPTER    XI. 

EXHALATION    AND    ABSORPTION. 

BY  exhalation  is  meant  the  escape  of  some  portion  of  the- con- 
tents of  the  blood-vessels  (generally  little  altered),  probably  through 
pores  in  their  sides.  When  a  fluid,  colored  with  vermilion,  is  in- 
jected into  the  blood-vessels  of  a  dead  animal,  the  fluid  portion  will 
pass  out  of  them,  and  is  said  to  be  exhaled,  while  the  vermilion  is 
retained  ;  or  when  a  solution  of  phosphorus  is  thrown  into  the  veins 
of  a  living  animal,  in  a  few  seconds  fumes  of  phosphorous  acid  are 
given  off  from  its  lungs.  By  absorption  is  meant  the  removal  of 
the  soft  or  hard  parts  of  the  body,  or  of  substances  placed  in  con- 
tact with  these  parts.  When  a  fat  person  becomes  lean,  or  the 
fluid  in  a  dropsical  person's  belly  has  disappeared,  the  fat  and  the 
fluid  are  said  to  have  been  absorbed. 

The  three  most  important  exhaling  and  absorbing  surfaces,  are 
the  intestinal  canal,  the  lungs,  and  the  skin  ;  but  these  processes 
are  active  also  in  the  chest,  belly,  and  other  cavities.  We  have 
already  explained  the  structure  of  the  intestinal  canal  and  lungs, 
and  the  skin  will  be  treated  of  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  so  that 
it  will  be  necessary  at  present  only  to  say  that  the  skin  has  a  thin 

*  There  is  strong  reason  to  believe  that,  in  many  instances,  a  small  amount  of  poi- 
sonous matter  introduced  from  without,  in  the  form  of  a  contagion  or  miasm,  may 
lead,  by  a  process  resembling  fermentation,  to  the  production  of  a  large  quantity  of  simi- 
lar noxious  substances  in  the  animal  fluids. 


EXHALATION    AND    ABSORPTION.  185 

outer  covering,  called  the  cuticle,  or  epidermis  (the  part  raised  by 
blistering),  which  has  no  feeling,  and  little  vitality  ;  and  another 
thicker  part  underneath,  called  the  true  skin  (the  part  which  tan- 
ners convert  into  leather),  which  is  plentifully  supplied  with  nerves, 
blood-vessels,  &c. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mechanism  of 
exhalation  is  very  simple,  the  fluid  merely  passing  through  the  sides 
of  its  vessels.  In  every  part  of  the  system  an  active  absorption  is 
carried  on  by  the  same  means,  the  fluid  removed  merely  passing 
through  the  sides  of  the  veins,  to  be  carried  off  by  the  internal  cur- 
rent. It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  absorption  was  exclusively 
carried  on  by  a  system  of  vessels,  which  received  the  name  of  ab- 
sorbents ;  but  this  is  now  known  to  be  quite  incorrect.  Allusion 
has  already  been  made  to  one  portion  of  these  absorbent  vessels 
connected  with  digestion,  which  are  called  lacteals.  Similar 
vessels  in  other  parts  of  the  body  receive  the  name  of  lymphatics, 
from  a  fluid  called  lymph,  which  they  convey  ;  and  in  their  course 
towards  the  thoracic  duct,  in  which  they  almost  all  terminate,  they 
pass  through  glandular  bodies,  found  in  numbers  in  the  hams, 
groins,  armpits,  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  &c.  It  is  these  glands 
about  the  neck  that  so  often  swell  and  inflame  when  there  is  disease 
of  the  gums,  or  eruptions  on  the  head,  or  when  there  exists  a  highly 
scrofulous  habit  of  body. 

The  veins  appear  to  take  up  all  fluid  matters  indiscriminately  that 
are  brought  in  contact  with  them  ;  the  lacteals  take  up  principally 
(if  not  solely)  chyle  ;  the  office  of  the  lymphatics  seems  to  be  chiefly 
to  mould  the  different  parts  of  the  body  into  their  proper  forms,  and 
the  lymph  contained  in  them  is  probably  the  removed  animal  mat- 
ters, which,  it  is  supposed,  may  undergo  some  changes  while  pass- 
ing through  the  lymphatics  and  their  glands,  that  render  them  fit  to 
be  mingled  with  the  blood.  From  the  late  researches  of  Fohmann, 
Panizza,  and  Lanth,  it  would  appear  that  the  lymphatics  commence 
by  minute  plexuses,  and  that  these  at  their  origin  do  not  communi- 
cate with  the  arteries  and  veins,  but  begin  by  shut  extremities.  In 
the  frog,  and  in  some  other  reptiles,  there  have  been  discovered 
parts,  connected  with  the  lymphatics,  that  pulsate  irregularly,  like 
hearts.  The  frog  has  four  of  these,  which  seem  to  be  used  for  pro- 
pelling the  lymph. 

Absorption  and  exhalation,  in  a  healthy  state,  generally  balance 
each  other,  so  that  a  full-grown  person's  weight,  notwithstanding 
the  quantity  of  food  consumed,  will  frequently  for  years  vary  only 


186  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

a  few  pounds.  The  conditions  which  promote  the  one  generally 
impede  the  other.  When  the  body  is  saturated  with  fluid,  absorp- 
tion goes  on  slowly  ;  but  exhalation,  under  the  same  circumstances, 
takes  place  rapidly.  M.  Majendie  found  that  when  a  quantity  of 
water  was  thrown  into  an  animal's  veins,  absorption  was  either 
much  impeded,  or  altogether  suspended  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  the  blood-vessels  were  partly  emptied  by  bleeding,  the  effects 
of  a  poison,  that  usually  showed  themselves  at  the  end  of  the 
second  minute,  were  distinctly  perceived  before  the  thirtieth  second. 
A  frog,  kept  for  some  time  previously  in  dry  air,  when  its  legs  are 
immersed  in  water,  will  in  a  short  time  absorb  nearly  its  own  weight 
of  the  fluid. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  absorbing  powers  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal.  The  next  in  importance,  as  an  absorbing  surface  for 
external  substances,  is  the  lungs,  and,  of  course,  the  matters  ab- 
sorbed are  generally  conveyed  in  the  form  of  vapor.  When  a  fluid 
poison,  however,  is  injected  into  the  windpipe,  it  acts  with  fearful 
rapidity.  It  is  through  this  surface  that  substances  diffused  in  the 
atmosphere  usually  produce  their  effects  on  the  system.  The  vapor 
of  turpentine,  breathed  along  with  the  air  of  a  room,  may  be  de- 
tected in  the  urine  within  a  short  time  afterwards,  and  the  concen- 
trated vapor  of  such  poisons  as  prussic  acid  will  instantly  kill  an 
animal  if  inhaled.  The  various  poisons  which  produce  fever, 
measles,  small-pox,  and  other  infectious  disorders,  are  in  this  way 
introduced  into  the  body,  the  smallest  quantity  frequently  sufficing 
for  this  purpose.  We  can  conceive  the  small  quantity  of  the  poison 
required,  when  we  notice  that  the  least  particle  of  the  matter  of  the 
small-pox?  placed  in  a  scratch  on  the  skin,  gives  rise  to  the  same 
disease.  In  proof  of  the  action  of  poisons,  when  inhaled  by  the 
lungs,  the  following  facts  may  be  stated. 

M.  Majendie  contrived  some  experiments,  in  which  dogs  were 
confined  in  the  upper  part  of  a  barrel,  the  lower  part  being  filled 
with  putrifying  animal  substances,  which  were  separated  from  the 
dogs  by  a  grating.  Confinement  in  this  situation,  from  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  putrid  effluvia,  produced  death  generally  about  the  tenth 
day.  The  animals  took  food,  and  were  even  lively,  but  became 
much  emaciated  before  death.  The  same  physiologist  produced 
symptoms  exactly  resembling  those  of  yellow  fever,  by  injecting  a 
few  drops  of  putrid  water  into  the  veins  of  dogs. 

A  nurse  in  one  of  the  Dublin  hospitals,  apparently  in  excellent 
health,  was  desired  by  the  physician  to  assist  a  patient,  laboring 


EXHALATION    AND    ABSORPTION.  187 

under  fever,  to  turn  in  bed.  Being  very  feeble,  he  endeavored  to 
support  himself  by  placing  his  arms  round  the  nurse's  neck,  when 
she  suddenly  drew  back,  struck  by  the  offensive  odor  from  his  per- 
son, and  exclaiming  that  she  had  caught  fever.  She  instantly 
became  cold,  pale,  and  ghastly,  and,  appearing  about  to  faint,  had 
to  be  removed  to  her  room.  Malignant  fever,  of  a  very  severe 
description,  succeeded,  and  lasted  for  thirteen  days. 

In  the  island  of  St.  Lucia,  in  the  West  Indies,  two  boatmen 
were  employed  hauling  their  canoe  up  on  the  beach,  close  to  a  dan- 
gerous swamp,  when  they  perceived  a  small  cloud  of  vapor 
approaching,  which  gradually  enveloped  them.  One  immediately 
fell  down  insensible,  and  the  other  was  so  much  affected  as  to  be 
unnble  to  render  him  any  assistance.  The  vapor  soon  passed  away, 
and  both  men  recovered  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  walk  home.  The 
one  most  affected,  however,  was  seized  with  fever,  and  died  within 
forty  hours  afterwards. 

Repeated  instances  occur  in  the  West  Indies  of  twenty  or  thirty 
workmen  being  employed  in  cutting  drains  or  canals  in  these  infec- 
tious swamps,  nine  out  of  ten  of  whom  will  be  seized  in  a  few  days 
with  the  most  dangerous  forms  of  tropical  fever.  Chiefly  from  these 
pestilential  fevers,  also,  the  probability  of  life  to  Europeans  in  the 
West  Indies  is  very  low.  It  appears,  from  the  most  accurate  army 
returns,  that  a  young  man's  chance  of  life,  which  in  this  country 
would  probably  be  about  forty  years,  is  reduced  in  Jamaica  to  about 
seven  years. 

In  marshy  districts,  the  poison  diffused  in  the  atmosphere  operates 
with  intensity  chiefly  after  sunset,  and  produces  dreadfully  fatal 
fevers  and  agues.  We  see  also,  in  the  natives  of  these  districts, 
the  effects  which  the  slow  operation  of  the  poison  produces  on  the 
health.  Their  appearance  in  highly  infected  districts  is  miserable 
in  the  extreme.  Stunted  in  their  growth,  with  swollen  bellies, 
stupid  expression,  and  jaundiced  complexions,  they  linger  out  a 
miserable  existence,  and  can  anywhere,  at  a  glance,  be  recognised. 
Happily  their  sufferings  terminate  life  quickly.  It  is  a  curious  cir- 
cumstance that  these  poisons  generally  lie  latent  or  inactive  in  the 
body  for  some  time.  In  the  fevers  of  this  country,  the  latent  period 
may  vary  from  a  few  days  to  some  weeks  ;  while  in  marsh  fever,  a 
person  will  often  have  left  the  infected  district,  six,  twelve,  or  more 
months,  before  he  is  seized  with  it. 

We  have  entered  into  these  details  in  order  that  it  may  be  seen, 
1st,  that  unnecessary  exposure  to  air  infected  with  the  poison  of 


188  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

fever,  is  both  improper  and  highly  dangerous  ;  and,  2dly,  to  show 
how  important  to  health  is  pure  air,  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  the 
removal  of  all  putrifying  animal  and  vegetable  matters  from  the 
vicinity  of  our  dwellings.  In  a  very  filthy  part  of  Constantinople, 
called  the  Jews'  quarter,  the  plague  constantly  prevails  more  or 
less,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  typhus  fever  in  some  confined 
and  dirty  parts  of  London,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  most  other 
large  cities. 

The  city  of  New  York,  to  the  disgrace  of  its  citizens,  particularly 
the  corporation,  is  the  most  filthy  of  any  other,  with  all  its  advan- 
tages of  Croton  water.  Both  animal  and  vegetable  substances  are 
suffered  to  accumulate,  with  pools  of  dirty,  putrid,  and  noxious 
water ;  slaughter  and  fat-houses  are  tolerated,  which  ,are  not  only 
extremely  offensive  and  nuisances,  but  sufficient  to  spread  infectious 
diseases,  and  would,  no  doubt,  were  our  city  not  surrounded  with 
the  preventative  of  salt  water.  There  are  a  sufficient  number  of 
men  who  would  consider  it  a  favor  to  keep  our  streets  clean  and 
healthy,  even  if  they  received  one  half  of  the  sum  which  is  ex- 
pended to  promote  the  interests  of  political  parties  only  in  the 
items  of  banners,  processions,  feasts,  &c. 

In  man,  the  absorbing  powers  of  the  skin  are  much  more  limited 
than  those  of  the  lungs.  When  the  cuticle  is  entire,  indeed,  it 
appears  to  absorb  almost  none,  unless  the  substance  be  rubbed  on 
it  with  force,  or  be  of  a  very  irritating  nature.  When  the  cuticle  is 
removed,  however,  it  absorbs  readily.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
most  virulent  poisons  can  be  handled  with  impunity,  only  while  the 
cuticle  is  entire.  Students  often  suffer  severely  from  this  cause, 
when,  in  opening  dead  bodies,  they  accidentally  puncture  or  cut 
themselves,  even  in  the  slightest  degree.  The  poison  introduced 
by  the  cut  part  inflames  it  dreadfully,  and  death  not  unfrequently 
occurs  within  a  few  days.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  that  a  slight 
scratch  must  be  made  through,  the  cuticle  before  a  child  can  be 
inoculated.  Have  we  not  abundant  means  and  facilities  to  acquire 
all  the  knowledge  necessary  to  treat  and  cure  both  physical  and 
surgical  diseases,  without  robbing  the  graveyards,  and  resorting  to 
that  revolting  and  dangerous  practice  of  dissections  ?  Should  any 
one  doubt  it,  let  him  pay  a  visit  to  my  ANATOMICAL  MUSEUM,  and 
if  he  is  unprejudiced,  he  \vell  be  convinced  of  it.  Here  every  part 
of  the  human  system  is  demonstrated  with  extraordinary  minuteness 
and  accuracy,  in  natural  plaster  and  wax,  imitating  most  perfectly 
every  one  of  the  original  organs.  Besides,  all  this  may  be  studied 


CUTANEOUS    SYSTEM    OR    SKIN.  189 

without  the  offensive  effluvia  of  the  dissecting-room,  and  at  all 
seasons.  This  great  improvement  constitutes  a  new  era  in  favor  of 
MEDICAL  REFORM,  and  must  be  identified  with  it,  and  must  be  car- 
ried out  as  soon  as  circumstances  permit. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

CUTANEOUS    SYSTEM    OR    SKIN. 

THE  glands  which  are  disposed  in  the  substance  of  the  skin,  and 
in  the  walls  of  the  intestinal  canal,  although  individually  minute, 
make  up  by  their  aggregation  an  excreting  apparatus  of  no  mean 
importance.  The  skin  is  the  seat  of  two  processes  in  particular  ; 
one  of  which  is  destined  to  free  the  blood  of  a  large  quantity  of 
fluid  ;  and  the  other  to  draw  off  a  considerable  amount  of  solid 
matter.  To  effect  these  processes,  we  meet  writh  two  distinct 
classes  of  glands  in  its  substance  ;  the  sudoriparous  or  sweat-glands, 
and  the  sebaceous  or  oil-glands.  They  are  both  formed,  however, 
upon  the  same  simple  plan ;  and  can  frequently  be  distinguished 
only  by  the  nature  of  their  secreted  product. 

The  perspiratory  form  small  oval  or  globular  masses,  situated 
just  beneath  the  skin,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
body.  Each  is  formed  by  the  convolution  of  a  single  tube; 
which  thence  runs  towards  the  surface  as  the  efferent  duct, 
making  numerous  spiral  turns  in  its  passage  through  the  skin,  and 
penetrating  the^  epidermis  rather  obliquely,  so  that  its  orifice  is 
covered  by  a  sort  of  little  valve  of  scarf-skin,  which  is  lifted  up  as 
the  fluid  issues  from  it.  The  convoluted  knot,  of  which  the  gland 
consists,  is  copiously  supplied  with  blood-vessels.  On  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  the  extremities  of  the  fingers, 
the  apertures  of  the  perspiratory  ducts  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
being  situated  at  regular  distances  along  the  little  ridges  of  papillae, 
and  giving  to  the  latter  the  appearance  of  being  crossed  by  trans- 
verse lines.  According  to  Wilson,  as  many  as  3528  of  these  glands 
exist  in  a  square  inch  of  surface  on  the  palm  of  the  hand ;  and  as 
every  tube,  when  straightened  out,  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length,  it  follows  that  in  a  square  inch  of  skin  from  the  palm  of  the 


190  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

hand  there  exists  a  length  of  tube  equal  to  882  inches,  or  73J  feet. 
The  number  in  other  parts  of  the  skin  is  sometimes  greater,  but 
generally  less  than  this  ;  and  according  to  Mr.  Wilson,  about  2800 
inches  may  be  taken  as  the  average  number  of  pores  in  each  square 
inch  throughout  the  body.  Now  the  number  of  square  inches  of 
surface,  in  a  man  of  ordinary  stature,  is  about  2500 ;  the  number 
of  pores,  therefore,  is  seven  millions ;  and  the  number  of  inches 
of  perspiratory  tubing  would  thus  be  1,750,000  ;  or  145,833  feet ; 
or  48,611  yards ;  or  nearly  28  miles. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Skin. 


1.  The  epidermis,  showing  the  oblique  laminae  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  the  disposition  of  the 
ridges  upon  its  surface.  2.  The  rete  mucosum  or  deep  layer  of  the  epidermis.  3.  Two  of  the 
quadrilateral  papillary  clumps,  such  as  are  seen  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  sole  of  the  foot ;  they 
are  composed  of  minute  conical  papillae.  4,  The  deep  layer  of  the  cutis,  the  corium.  5.  Adipose 
cells.  6.  A  sudoriparous  gland  with  its  spiral  duct,  such  as  is  seen  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  sole 
of  the  foot.  7.  Another  sudoriparous  gland  with  a  straighter  duct,  such  as  is  seen  in  the  scalp. 
8.  Two  hairs  from  the  scalp,  enclosed  in  their  follicles  ;  their  relative  depth  in  the  skin  is  pre- 
served. 9.  A  pair  of  sebaceous  glands,  opening  by  short  ducts  into  the  follicle  of  the  hair. 

From  this  extensive  system  of  glands,  a  secretion  of  watery  fluid 
is  continually  taking  place ;  and  a  considerable  amount  of  solid 
matter  also  is  drawn  off  by  the  epithelium-cells  that  line  the  tubes. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  fluid  is  carried  off  in  the  state  of 
vapor,  forming  the  insensible  perspiration  ;  and  it  is  only  when  its 
amount  is  considerably  increased,  or  when  the  surrounding  air  is 
already  so  loaded  with  moisture  as  to  be  incapable  of  receiving 
more,  that  the  fluid  remains  in  the  form  of  sensible  perspiration  upon 
the  surface  of  the  skin.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  proportion  of 
solid  matter  contained  in  this  secretion ;  partly  on  account  of  the 


CUTANEOUS    SYSTEM    OR    SKIN.  19] 

great  variations  in  the  amount  of  fluid  eliminated  by  the  sudori- 
parous glands,  which  are  governed  by  the  temperature  of  the  skin ; 
and  partly  because  the  secretion  can  scarcely  be  collected  for 
analysis,  free  from  the  sebaceous  and  other  matters  which  accumu- 
late on  the  surface  of  the  skin.  According  to  Anselmino  it  varies 
from  J  to  1 J  per  cent.  ;  and  consists  in  part  of  lactic  acid,  to  which 
the  acid  reaction  and  sour  smell  of  the  secretion  are  due  ;  in  part 
of  a  proteine  compound,  which  is  probably  furnished  by  the  epithe- 
lium cells  that  line  the  tubes ;  and  in  part  of  saline  matters,  directly 
proceeding  from  the  serum  of  the  blood.  Sanctorius  proved  that 
three-fourths  of  all  taken  into  the  system  passed  off  by  the  skin. 

The  amount  of  fluid  excreted  from  the  skin  is  almost  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  medium  ;  being 
increased  with  its  rise,  and  diminished  with  its  fall.  The  object  of 
this  variation  is  very  evident ;  being  the  regulation  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body.  When  the  surface  is  exposed  to  a  high  degree 
of  external  heat,  the  increased  amount  of  fluid  set  free  from  the 
perspiratory  glands  becomes  the  means ,  of  keeping  down  its  own 
temperature ;  for  this  fluid  is  then  carried  off  in  a  state  of  vapor, 
as  fast  as  it  is  set  free ;  and  in  its  change  of  form,  it  withdraws  a 
large  quantity  of  caloric  from  the  surface.  But  if  the  hot  atmo- 
sphere be  already  loaded  with  vapor,  this  cooling  power  cannot  be 
exerted ;  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  raised,  and  death  super- 
venes, if  the  experiment  be  long  continued.  The  cause  of  the 
increased  secretion  is  probably  to  be  looked  for  in  the  increased 
determination  of  blood  to  the  skin,  which  takes  place  under  the 
stimulus  of  heat.  The  entire  loss  by  exhalation  from  the  lungs  and 
skin,  during  the  twenty-four  hours,  seems  to  average  a  little  above 
two  pounds.  In  a  warm  dry  atmosphere,  however,  it  has  been 
found  to  rise  to  as  much  as  five  pounds  ;  whilst  in  a  cold  damp  one, 
it  may  be  lowered  to  one  and  two-thirds  of  a  pound.  Of  this 
quantity,  the  pulmonary  exhalation  is  usually  somewhat  less  than 
one-third,  and  the  cutaneous  somewhat  more  than  two-thirds  ;  but 
when  the  quantity  of  fluid  lost  is  unusually  great  the  increase  must 
be  chiefly  in  the  cutaneous  exhalation ;  since  the  amount  of  exhala- 
tion from  the  lungs  is  not  influenced  by  the  external  temperature, 
but  only  by  the  degree  in  which  the  surrounding  air  is  previously 
saturated  with  moisture. 

The  variations  in  the  amount  of  fluid  set  free  by  cutaneous  and 
pulmonary  exhalation,  are  counterbalanced  by  the  regulating  action 
of  the  kidney ;  which  allows  a  larger  proportion  of  water  to  be 


192  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

strained  off  in  a  liquid  state  from  the  blood-vessels,  as  the  exhala- 
tion is  less, — and'  vice  versa.  The  cutaneous  and  urinary  excre- 
tions seem  to  be  vicarious,  not  merely  in  regard  to  the  amount  of 
fluid  which  they  carry  off  from  the  blood,  but  also  in  respect  to 
the  solid  matter  which  they  eliminate  from  it.  It  appears  that  at 
least  one  hundred  grains  of  eifete  azotized  matter  are  daily  thrown 
off  from  the  skin;  and  any  cause  which  checks  this  excretion,  must 
increase  the  labor  of  the  kidneys,  or  produce  an  accumulation  of 
noxious  matter  in  the  blood.  Hence  attention  to  the  functions 
of  the  skin,  at  all  times  a  matter  of  great  importance,  is  peculiarly 
required  in  the  treatment  of  febrile  diseases  ;  and  it  will  be  often 
found  that  no  means  is  so  useful  in  removing  the  lithic  acid  deposit 
in  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  as  copious  alkaline  ablution  and  friction 
of  the  skin,  combined  with  exercise.  The  exhalant  action  of  the 
skin  is  completely  checked  by  the  application  of  an  impermeable 
varnish,  the  effect  is  not  (as  might  be  anticipated)  an  elevation  of 
the  temperature  of  the  body.  A  partial  suppression  by  which 
means  gives  rise  to  febrile  symptoms,  and  there  is  an  escape  of  the 
albuminous  part  of  the  blood  into  the  urinary  tubes,  in  consequence 
(it  would  appear)  of  the  increased  determination  which  then  takes 
place  towards  the  kidneys.  These  facts  are  interesting,  as  throw- 
ing light  upon  the  febrile  disturbance  which  accompanies  those 
febrile  and  cutaneous  diseases  that  affect  the  whole  surface  of  the 
skin  at  once,  and  interfere  with  its  functions ;  and  as  accounting 
also  for  the  albumen  which  frequently  manifests  itself  during  their 
progress,  especially  in  fever. 

The  exhaling  powers  of  both  the  skin  and  the  lungs  are  very 
considerable.  In  winter,  we  notice  the  watery  vapor  coming  from 
the  lungs  condensed  by  the  cold  air ;  in  summer,  we  see  how  much 
fluid  escapes  from  the  skin  in  the  form  of  perspiration.  Inde- 
pendently of  this,  however,  from  thirty  to  sixty  ounces  of  watery 
fluid  are  calculated  to  pass  off  daily  from  the  skin  in  the  form  of 
insensible  perspiration.  This  insensible  perspiration  may  be  seen 
to  be  condensed,  when  the  point  of  the  finger  is  moved  along  the 
surface  of  a  looking-glass,  at  about  the  distance  of  an  eighth  of  an 
inch,  and  also  when  we  handle  any  polished  steel  instrument ;  or 
still  more  decisively  when  the  arm  is  confined  in  a  glass  jar ;  or 
when  the  body  is  viewed  by  a  microscope  in  a  state  of  free  perspira- 
tion. It  is  then  seen  enveloped  in  a  cloud  or  vapor  ;  this  comes  in 
contact  with  the  cold  of  the  atmosphere,  which  condenses  it,  when 
it  falls  down  in  the  form  of  water  or  sweat,  being  then  heavier  than 


CUTANEOUS  SYSTEM  OR  SKIN.  193 

the  air.  Rain  is,  no  doubt,  caused  in  the  same  manner.  Dr.  Smith 
has  performed  some  interesting  experiments  on  the  subject  of  ex- 
halation, from  the  skin  and  lungs  jointly.  Eight  workmen  in  the 
Phoenix  Gas-works,  London  (where  they  must  work  hard,  and  be 
exposed  to  a  high  temperature  at  the  same  time),  were  weighed 
before  going  to  work,  and  immediately  afterwards.  In  one  experi- 
ment, in  November,  they  continued  to  work  for  an  hour  and  a  quar- 
ter, and  the  greatest  loss  sustained  by  any  one  man  was  two  pounds 
fifteen  ounces.  In  another  experiment,  in  the  same  month,  one 
man  lost  four  pounds  three  ounces  in  three  quarters  of  an  hour ; 
and  in  an  experiment  of  the  same  kind,  in  June,  one  man  lost  no 
less  than  five  pounds  two  ounces  in  an  hour  and  ten  minutes. 

We  shall  conclude  this  chapter  by  stating  a  few  other  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  skin. 
We  have  mentioned  that  the  external  layer  of  the  skin  is  called  the 
cuticle.  M.  Breschet^  a  French  author,  who  has  very  carefully 
investigated  the  structure  of  the  skin,  considers  the  cuticle  to  be  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  horny  matter  which  forms  the  nails,  the 
hairs,  feathers,  horns,  &c.,  of  animals.  It  is  secreted  by  particular 
organs,  and  when  intended  to  be  colored,  it  is  mixed  with  coloring 
matter  (which  also  is  secreted  by  distinct  organs)  while  in  a  fluid 
state.  The  arrangement  of  the  cuticle,  in  different  parts  of  the 
human  body,  is  well  worthy  of  attention.  Where  feeling  is  to  be 
exercised,  it  is  thin  and  delicate  ;  over  the  joints  it  is  lax  and  mov- 
able ;  on  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet,  even  in  the 
infant,  it  is  thick  and  hard,  and  these  properties  are  greatly  in- 
creased by  constant  use.  Simple  as  this  last  provision  may  appear, 
it  seems  doubtful  whether  the  want  of  it  would  not  have  interfered 
materially  with  the  exercise  of  many  of  our  most  useful  arts. 

Between  the  cuticle  and  the  true  skin,  formerly  mentioned  as  the 
part  of  animals  that  is  tanned,  is  found  the  layer  that  gives  the  color 
to  the  different  varieties  of  the  human  species,  &c.  (rete  mucosum.) 
In  Europeans  it  is  generally  of  a  light  color,  in  Negroes  it  is  black, 
and  in  other  races  it  is  intermediate,  or  of  other  shades.  The  color 
of  the  Negro  does  not  depend  on  the  blackening  of  the  cuticle  by 
the  sun,  for  his  cuticle  is  seen  to  be  as  transparent  as  an  European's 
when  raised  by  a  blister  ;  and  we  observe,  also,  that  the  secretion 
of  the  black  coloring  matter  does  not  take  place  in  the  Negro  child 
until  a  day  or  two  after  birth.  The  change  of  color  in  the  human 
family,  I  have  no  doubt,  took  place  at  the  confounding  of  the  lan- 
guages at  the  tower  of  Babel.  It  is  all  nonsense  to  suppose  that 
13 


194  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  climate  is  sufficient  to  make  the  difference  of  color  in  the  human 
family.  Is  it  capable  of  making  the  nose  flat,  skin  jet  black,  and 
hair  like  wool  1  The  idea  is  ridiculous..  I  see  no  theory  so  rational 
as  that  which  supposes  that  the  different  colors  of  nature,  almost  as 
many  shades  and  varieties  as  dialects,  were  formed  at  the  very  time 
their  language  was  altered  or  confounded,  viz.  at  the  tower  of 
Babel,  and  for  the  very  wise  reason  that,  as  the  people  could  not 
converse  together,  their  colors  were  correspondingly  changed. 

The  cutis,  or  true  skin,  is  the  third  and  most  important  layer. 
Besides  its  uses  already  referred  to,  it  has  a  very  large  supply  of 
blood  sent  to  it ;  is  a  surface  of  great  sensibility,  intimately  sym- 
pathizing with  the  internal  organs  ;  and,  from  its  exposed  situation 
and  extent,  is  peculiarly  liable  to  be  affected  by  external  influences. 
Perhaps  no  other  surface  in  the  body  is  so  much  concerned  in  the 
production  of  internal  inflammatory  disorders,  and  perhaps  the 
agents  that  above  all  others  tend  to  produce  these,  are  the  various 
degrees,  and  especially  the  sudden  applications,  of  heat  and  cold. 
When  heat  is  applied  suddenly  and  extensively,  so  as  to  give  rise 
to  a  burn  or  scald,  the  heart's  action  is  frequently  extinguished 
within  a  few  hours,  even  although  the  burn,  in  any  one  portion,  is 
altogether  superficial  and  unimportant.  Mr.  John  Hunter  gives  a 
striking  proof  of  the  effects  produced  by  a  sudden  change  of  tempera- 
ture on  the  skin.  He  took  an  eel,  which  was  swimming  in  water  a 
little  above  30  degrees,  and  plunged  it  into  water  about  60  degrees, 
a  temperature  in  which  it  habitually  lives  with  ease.  The  sudden 
change,  however,  gave  such  a  check  to  its  system,  that  the  animal 
instantly  expired.*  In  these  cases  the  effect  seems  to  be  produced 
principally  through  the  agency  of  the  nervous  system ;  but  when 
the  application  of  cold  produces  its  injurious  effects,  the  blood  that 
is  forced,  by  the  constricted  vessels,  from  the  surface,  upon  the 
internal  parts,  overloads  them,  and  impedes  the  due  performance  of 
their  functions.  Hence  the  indispensable  importance  of  recalling 
it  back  to  the  surface  instead  of  abstracting.  This  theory  over- 
turns the  old  allopathic  doctrine  of  blood-letting.  When  the  body 
is  exposed  for  some  time  to  a  great  degree  of  cold,  the  tendency  to 
sleep  becomes  almost  irresistible.  Under  these  circumstances,  to 

*  Says  a  writer — "  We  lately  met  with  a  case  exemplifying  the  effect  of  sudden 
change  of  temperature.  A  person  who  had  been  treading  snow  in  an  ice-house  felt  his 
feet  uncommonly  cold.  To  remedy  this,  he  plunged  them  into  water  somewhat  heated. 
The  consequence  was,  the  little  toe  of  one  foot  and  part  of  the  great  toe  of  the  other 
mortified,  and  had  to  be  cut  off." 


CUTANEOUS  SYSTEM  OR  SKIN.  195 

use  the  words  of  Dr.  Solander,  quoted  by  Captain  Cook,  "whoever 
sits  down  will  sleep,  and  whoever  sleeps  will  wake  no  more." 
These  words  were  used  by  Dr.  Solander  during  an  excursion  in 
Terra  del  Fuego,  with  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  nine  other  individuals, 
when  the  cold  was  intense.  Notwithstanding  Dr.  Solander  gave 
the  precaution,  he  was  the  first  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  cold,  and 
his  companions  were  obliged  to  yield  so  far  to  his  entreaties  as  to 
allow  him  to  sleep  for  five  minutes.  With  the  utmost  difficulty  he 
was  aroused.  Two  black  servants  also  slept,  and  perished.  Ex- 
posure to  a  lesser  degree  of  cold  acts  differently.  Every  one  knows 
the  power  of  cold  draughts  of  air,  of  cold  or  damp  feet,  the  wear- 
ing of  damp  clothes,  or  sleeping  in  damp  sheets,  in  giving  rise  to 
inflammations,  even  in  persons  whose  surface  has  a  vigorous  circu- 
lation, and  is  therefore  not  easily  chilled.  When  the  circulation  on 
the  surface  is  languid,  these  causes  act  with  tenfold  force ;  and 
hence  in  all  such  constitutions  it  is  of  the  utmost  moment,  1st,  that 
the  skin  should  at  all  seasons  be  protected  from  sudden  chills  by 
warm  (the  best  are  flannels)  coverings ;  and,  2dly,  that  bathing, 
a  proper  diet,  and  all  other  means  that  give  permanent  vigor  to  the 
circulation  should  be  specially  attended  to.  Under  all  circum- 
stances, indeed,  frequently  cleansing  the  skin,  by  removing  noxious 
excretions,  and  allowing  the  proper  exercise  of  its  functions,  has  a 
much  more  important  influence  on  health  than  is  generally  ima- 
gined. 

[Good  views  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  will  be  found  in  Lizars'  Colored  Plates,  page 
99,  and  of  the  skin,  at  page  82  of  the  same.  Connected  with  the  subject  of  the  skin, 
the  teacher  may  introduce  some  instructive  lessons  on  the  five  varieties  of  the  human 
species  and  their  distribution.  We  have  found  that  these  lessons  are  rendered  much 
more  impressive  by  having  drawings  of  these  varieties,  and  also  a  skeleton  map  of  the 
globe,  of  a  large  size  (say  six  feet  by  four),  colored  so  as  to  indicate  their  different 
localities.  Thus,  the  European,  or  Caucasian,  may  be  left  white,  the  Mongolian 
colored  yellow,  the  American  red,  the  Malay  brown,  and  the  Ethiopian  black.  The 
drawings,  and  the  requisite  information  as  to  localities  in  making  this  map,  will  be 
found  in  the  latter  part  of  Lawrence's  Lectures  on  Man,  8vo.  edition.] 


196  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE    ABSORBENT    SYSTEM 

COMPREHENDS  1st,  the  vessels  which  convey  the  lymph  and  chyle 
into  the  veins,  and  2dly,  the  enlargements  which  occur  in  their 
course,  called  glands  or  ganglia. 

The  Lacteal  or  Chyliferous  vessels  commence  on  the  mucous 
surface  of  the  intestines,  pass  through  the  mesenteric  glands  back- 
wards towards  the  spine,  where  they  terminate  in  the  thoracic 
duct. 

The  lymphatic  vessels  are  found  in  most  situations  of  the  body, 
and  generally  observe  a  deep  and  superficial  arrangement. 

Lymphatics  of  the  lower  extremities. — The  superficial  set  accom- 
pany the  external  and  internal  •  saphena  veins :  they  communicate 
freely  in  their  course  with  the  deep  lymphatic  trunks  which  accom- 
pany the  deep  vessels.  Those  which  accompany  the  external 
saphena  vein  enter  the  glands  in  the  popliteal  space,  whilst  those 
accompanying  the  internal  saphena  vein  ascend  to  the  groin,  and 
pass  through  the  inguinal  glands,  having  formed  numerous  con- 
nexions with  the  superficial  lymphatics  of  the  abdomen,  the  peri- 
neam,  and  the  genitals.  The  deep  lymphatics  of  the  hip  and 
perineum  are  conducted  by  the  branches  of  the  internal  iliac 
vessels  into  the  pelvis,  and  pass  through  the  pelvic  glands. 
From  the  inguinal  and  pelvic  glands  the  lymphatics  pass  along  the 
primitive  iliac  vessels  to  the  receptabulum  chyli. 

The  Thoracic  Duct. — This  canal  commences  by  a  dilatation  called 
receptaculum  chyli,  placed  on  the  body  of  the  2d  or  3d  dorsal  ver- 
tebra :  passing  between  the  crura  of  the  diaphragm  it  gains  the 
posterior  mediastinum,  where  it  lies  between  the  aorta  and  the  vena 
azygos ;  at  the  5th  dorsal  vertebra  it  crosses  the  spine  obliquely  to 
the  left  side,  passing  behind  the  oesophagus  and  arch  of  the  aorta, 
and  placed  behind  the  left  pleura,  and  between  the  left  carotid  and 
left  subclavian  arteries,  it  is  then  conducted  by  the  oesophagus  to 
the  left  side  of  the  neck  as  high  as  the  6th  cervical  vertebra,  where, 
making  a  slight  curve  downwards  and  outwards,  it  opens  close  to 
the  external  angle  formed  by  the  left  subclavian  and  jugular  veins. 


THE    SENSES.  197 

Lymphatics  of  the  upper  extremities. — The  superficial  set  accom- 
pany the  superficial  veins,  and  pass  through  two  or  three  glands 
situated  at  the  inner  condyle  ;  having  joined  the  deep  lymphatics 
which  accompany  the  venae  comites,  they  proceed  onwards  to  the 
axilla,  and  pass  through  the  axillary  glands  ;  following  ,  the  course 
of  the  axillary  vein,  they  pass  beneath  the  clavicle,  join  the  lym- 
phatics of  the  neck,  and  terminate  in  the  thoracic  duct.  The 
lymphatics  of  the  right  upper  extremity,  and  right  side  of  the  neck, 
unite  to  form  the  right  or  lesser  thoracic  duct,  which  opens  into  the 
right  vena  innominata. 

The  lymphatics  of  the  trunk  consist  of  a  deep  and  superficial  set ; 
in  the  chest,  the  former  are  seated  between  the  muscles  and  pleura, 
in  the  abdomen,  between  the  muscles  and  peritoneum,  the  super- 
ficial being  subcutaneous.  The  viscera  contained  in  the  chest  and 
abdomen  also  have  a  superficial  and  deep  layer  of  lymphatics — the 
deep  being  distributed  through  the  peculiar  tissue  of  each  organ, 
the  superficial  running  beneath  the  membranous  envelope. 

Lymphatics  have  been  denied  to  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and 
to  the  ear,  eye,  and  placenta.  For  a  beautiful  view  of  lymphatics, 
see  steel  plate,  Frontispiece. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE    SENSES. 

THE  senses  are  the  means  by  which  the  mind  becomes  acquainted 
with  external  objects.  Without  the  materials  which  they  furnish, 
its  exercise  would  be  impossible.  When  the  mind  has  once  ex- 
perienced various  sensations,  the  memory  can  recal  them  when  they 
are  gone ;  the  judgment  can  compare  them,  and  can  perceive  their 
relations,  and  the  imagination  can  combine  them  into  endless 
varieties ;  but  still,  with  all  this,  we  are  incapable  of  figuring  to 
ourselves  any  image,  the  elements  at  least  of  which  have  not  first 
been  made  known  to  us  through  sensation. 

The  senses  generally  enumerated  are  five,  viz. — touch,  taste, 
smell,  hearing,  and  vision.  There  are  other  sensations,,  however, 
such  as  those  of  thirst,  hunger,  nausea,  sneezing,  &c.,  which  cannot 
properly  be  classed  under  any  of  these  heads. 


198  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

TOUCH. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  diffused  over  almost  the  whole  external 
surface  of  the  body,  but  is  possessed  in  greatest  delicacy  by  certain 
parts,  such  as  the  lips,  and  the  ends  of  the  fingers.  When  the 
innermost  layer  of  the  skin  is  examined  with  a  microscope,  it  pre- 
sents numerous  projecting  points,  or  papilla,  to  each  of  which  it  is 
probable  a  branch  of  a  sensitive  nerve  is  sent,  as  they  are  seen  in 
greatest  numbers  where  the  sense  is  most  acute.  To  exercise  this 
sense  in  perfection,  it  is  requisite  that  the  organ  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  be  capable  of  being  readily  applied  to  bodies,  in 
a  variety  of  directions  ;  and  it  is  in  the  human  hand  that  this  quality, 
the  distribution  of  the  sensitive  nervous  filaments,  and  a  thin  cuticle 
covering  these,'  are  united  in  the  highest  degree. 

The  late  Dr.  Thomas  Brown,  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in 
Edinburgh,  contended  that  touch  gives  us  no,  or  at  least  very  im- 
perfect, ideas  of  extension  or  sp'ace,  and  of  hardness  or  solidity. 
Our  ideas  of  these,  he  thought,  are  principally  derived  from  what  he 
calls  muscular  sensations.  Connected  with  this  point,  we  may 
remark,  that  Francisco  Csesario,  although  entirely  deprived  of  sensa- 
tion on  one  side,  so  that  even  cutting  it  gave  him  no  feeling,  could 
yet,  with  the  same,  judge  of  the  weight  and  consistence  of  bodies. 

A  similar  conjecture,  as  to  the  feelings  derived  from  temperature, 
seems  to  be  supported  by  such  cases  as  the  following  : — A  physician 
of  Geneva,  after  an  attack  of  palsy,  could  be  pricked  or  scratched  in 
the  right  hand  or  arm,  without  giving  him  any  sensation.  When, 
however,  he  took  a  cold  body  into  his  hand,  he  felt  it,  but  it  appeared 
to  him  lukewarm.  Here  the  feelings  of  touch  seem  to  have  been  lost, 
but  a  deranged  perception  of  temperature  existed. 

The  soft  bodies  of  the  lowest  classes  of  animals  are  well  fitted  for 
the  exercise  of  the  sense  of  touch,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  many 
of  them  possess  any  other.  The  organs  of  touch  in  insects,  if,  in- 
deed, they  are  not  allotted  to  some  higher  sense,  are  especially  their 
antennae  or  feelers,  which,  though  in  themselves  minute,  are  gene- 
rally feathered  or  radiated,  so  as  to  include  parts  too  small  for  human 
vision,  and  the  sensations  of  which  must  be  of  an  exquisitely  delicate 
nature.  Huber,  in  his  interesting  work  on  bees,  states,  that  it  is  by 
feeling  with  the  antenna?  that  they  seem  to  direct  their  various 
works  in  the  interior  cff  the  hive.  If  an  insect  be  deprived  of  its 
antenna?,  it  either  remains  motionless,  or,  if  it  attempts  to  fly, 
appears  bewildered.  A  queen  bee  thus  mutilated,  ran  about, 
without  apparent  object,  as  if  in  a  state  of  delirium. 


THE   SENSES.  199 

Spallanzani  discovered  that  bats  could  thread  their  way  with  ease 
through  the  darkest  and  most  intricate  passages,  where  obstacles 
had  been  purposely  placed  in  their  way,  even  when  their  eyes  were 
put  'out  or 'covered  over,  and  hence  thought  that  they  must  have 
some  other  sense  to  direct  them.  It  has  been  rendered  probable, 
however,  that  they  owe  this  power  to  the  delicacy  of  the  sense  of 
touch  in  their  wings  and  other  parts. 

TASTE    AND  SMELL. 

The  senses  of  taste  and  smell  may  be  spoken  of  together,  as  they 
appear  in  many  places  to  be  intimately  connected.  The  sense  of 
taste  resides  in  the  tongue  and  mouth,  and  has  generally  been  con- 
sidered by  physiologists  as  little  more  than  a  modification  of  touch. 
The  5th  nerve  was  supposed  to  confer  both  touch  and  taste. 
Panizza,  however,  as  was  mentioned,  has  recently  disputed  this. 
The  papillae,  already  spoken  of,  are  particularly  well  seen  in  the 
tongue.  If  a  fluid,  such  as  strong  vinegar,  be  applied  with  a  hair 
pencil,  they  will  be  seen  to  become  curiously  elongated. 

The  tongue  is  covered  with  a  thin  cuticle,  and  the  nostrils  are 
lined  by  a  soft  membrane,  called,  from  a  celebrated  anatomist,  the 
Schn-eiderian  membrane.  It  is  upon  this  that  the  olfactory  nerve 
ramifies ;  not,  however,  covered  by  it,  but  protected  from  the  air  that 
passes  through  the  nostrils  merely  by  the  natural  secretion,  called 
mu-cus.  The  vapor  of  different  bodies  thus  comes  directly  into 
contact  with  these  nerves. 

The  following  Figure  shows  the  olfactory  nerves  which  give  the  sense  of  smelling. 


Substances  tasted  must  be  either  naturally  fluid,  or  must  be 
dissolved  by  the  saliva.  When  this  condition  is  observed,  we  are 
sensible  of  certain  feelings,  commonly  supposed  to  be  produced  in 


200  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

the  mouth.  A  large  proportion,  however,  of  the  feelings  conveyed 
by  the  tongue,  are  little  more  than  different  degrees  of  pungency, 
which  we  may  almost  conceive  capable  of  being  felt  by  the  ends  of 
the  fingers,  had  their  cuticle  been  fine  enough.  The  flavor  of 
bodies,  generally  included  when  we  speak  of  their  taste,  is  a  sensa- 
tion entirely  owing  to  the  action  of  their  vapor  on  the  back  part  of 
the  nostrils  ;  so  that,  when  the  membrane  that  lines  these  is  inflamed, 
pr  otherwise  diseased,  whiskey,  vinegar,  mustard,  and  many  other 
substances,  can  with  some  difficulty  be  distinguished  from  each 
other.  Any  onre  may  easily  satisfy  himself  of  the  indefinite  nature 
of  the  sensation  of  taste,  by  pushing  out  the  tongue,  accurately 
closing  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  and  then  applying  it  to  different 
substances. 

In  the  savage  state,  the  sense  of  smell  is  much  used,  and  becomes 
proportionately  acute.  The  American  Indians,  it  is  said,  can 
easily  distinguish  different  tribes  and  nations  by  the  odor  of  their 
bodies.  The  blind  and  deaf  boy,  James  Mitchell,  whose  history 
has"  been  recorded  by  Mr.  Wardrop  and  Professor  Dugald  Stewart, 
knew  his  friends,  and  at  once  detected  strangers  in  a  room  by  this 
sense. 

These  senses  are  very  acute  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  and 
particularly  in  the  carnivorous  Vertebrata.  The  olfactory  nerves 
of  most  birds  are  small.  In  the  duck  and  similar  tribes,  however, 
they  are  large,  and  are  much  used.  The  nostrils  of  fishes  do  not 
communicate  with  the  mouth,  and  smell  becomes  with  them  more 
like  taste,  from  the  substance  being  dissolved  in  water  instead  of 
air. 

HEARING. 

The  sense  of  hearing  results  from  vibrations  in  an  elastic  sub- 
stance, such  as  air  or  water,  being  communicated  to  the  ear.  When 
a  bell  is  shaken  in  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  no  sound 
is  heard,  because  the  air  which  usually  carries  the  vibrations  to  the 
ear  is  absent.  Sound  travels  through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  about 
twelve  and  a  half  miles  in  a  minute  ;  through  water  its  velocity  is 
four  or  five  times  greater  ;  and  ice  and  other  solid  bodies  are  known 
to  transmit  it  even  more  quickly. 

.  The  organ  of  hearing  in  man  may  be  divided  into  external,  mid- 
dle, and  internal  parts.  The  external  consist  of  the  gristle  of  the 
ear  (c),  of  use  in  most  animals  for  collecting  the  sounds  ;  and  of  a 
funnel-shaped  canal  (m),  which  leads  to  the  middle  part  or  drum  (t). 


THE    SENSES.  201 

The  external  and  middle  parts  do  not  communicate  directly,  there 
being  interposed  between  the  two  a  thin  membrane  (d),  attached  to 
the  bony  sides  of  the  canal,  exactly  like  the  parchment  on  a  real 
drum.  On  this  membrane  the  vibrations  of  the  air  strike,  and  to  it 
there  is  attached  a  chain  of  small  bones  (Z>),  which  are  also  con- 
nected with  the  internal  ear,  in  which  last  is  placed  the  nerve  of 
hearing.  The  vibrations,  therefore,  first  strike  the  membrane  of  the 
drum,  and  then  pass  along  these  bones  to  the  auditory  nerve,  seen 
in  the  figure,  n.  The  cavity  of  the  drum  (£),  though  it  does  not 
communicate  with  the  external  ear,  yet  has  air  admitted  to  it.  This 
passes  through  a  canal  (e),  called  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  opens 
into  the  back  part  of  the  throat  or  pharynx.  Most  persons  have 
felt  their  hearing  become  dull  when  inflammation  of  the  throat 
closes  this  tube,  and  prevents  the  passage  of  the  air.  The  internal 
ear  is  very  intricate,  and  the  uses  of  its  different  parts  are  not  well 
known.  In  the  figure  are  seen  parts  of  it  called  semicircular  canals 
(s),  the  cochlea  (A:),  the  vestibule  (t>),  which  are  all  filled  with  a  fluid, 
and  the  auditory  nerve  (n),  going  to  these  parts. 

The  Ear, 


c,  corcha  or  external  gristle,  m,  csnal  leading  to  t,  the  tympanum  or  drum,  d,  membrane  of 
the  drum.  6,  small  bone  of  the  drum,  r,  vestibule.  3,  semicircular  canals,  ft,  cochlea,  n  audi- 
tory nerve,  e,  Eustachian  tutxj. 

Of  the  parts  described,  it  would  seem  that  the  internal  ear  is  the 
only  one  that  is  essential,  for  cases  have  occurred  in  which  disease 
has  destroyed  both  the  membrane  of  the  drum  and  the  small  bones, 
and  yet  hearing  has  remained.  It  is  a  curious  observation,  made 
by  Dr.  Wollaston,  that  there  are  persons,  of  whom  he  himself  was 
one,  who  are  insensible  to  very  acute  sounds,  though  all  others  are 
perfectly  heard.  Some  cannot  hear  the  note  of  the  bat  or  the  chirp 
of  the  grasshopper,  while  others  are  insensible  even  to  the  chirping 
of  the  sparrow. 


202  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

I 

The  Radiata,  and  almost  all  the  Mollusca,  appear  to  want  this 
sense,  but  it  is  possessed  acutely  by  many  insects,  though  the  organ 
used  is  not  accurately  known.  In  the  sepia  is  found  the  simplest 
organ  of  hearing.  It  is  merely  a  sac-  filled  with  fluid,  with  the  nerve 
expanded  in  it,  and  having  a  hard  body  attached  to  its  extremity. 
Fishes  have  this  organ  a  little  more  complicated,  but  in  neither  these 
nor  the  sepia  is  there  any  external  opening.  They  hear  as  we  do 
when  a  hard  body  is  held  between  the  teeth,  the  conducting  power  of 
water  for  sound  being  much  greater  than  that  of  air.  When  the 
Abbe  Nollet  sank  his  head  under  water  and  struck  two  stones 
together,  the  shock  to  the  ear  was  almost  insupportable.  This 
organ  becomes  progressively  more  complicated  in  reptiles,  birds, 
and  the  mammalia.  Among  the  last  we  first  find  external  cartilages, 
which,  as  well  as  the  internal  tube,  are  directed  forwards  in  those 
which  pursue  their  prey,  and  backwards  in  timid  animals,  such  as 
the  hare,  rabbit,  &c. 

VISION. 

The  next  and  last  sense  we  have  to  treat  of  is  vision.  All  the 
affections  of  this  sense  are  derived  from  the  action  of  light.  We 
think  we  see  the  bodies  themselves  that  are  scattered  round  us,  but 
this  is  a  mistake,  for  they  themselves  have  no  color.  The  color,  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  the  power  to  produce  the  sensation  we  call 
color,  resides  entirely  in  the  rays  of  light  that  are  thrown  off  or 
reflected  from  these  bodies  to  our  eyes.  In  spite  of  our  convictions, 
however,  we  cannot  help  conceiving  of  our  sensations  as  abiding 
qualities  in  these  different  objects. 

If  a  ray  of  light  be  admitted  through  a  small  opening  into  a  dark 
chamber,  it  appears  white,  but  by  causing  it  to  pass  through  a  three- 
sided  piece  of  glass  called  a  prism,  it  is  seen  to  be  composed  of 
different-colored  rays.  These,  according  to  Dr.  Wollaston,  are 
red,  yellowish  green,  blue,  and  violet.  In  this  way  a  ray  of  light 
is  decomposed ;  when  these  colors  are  all  uniformly  blended,  as 
when  a  card  on  which  they  are  separately  painted  is  rapidly  whirled 
round,  the  resulting  color  is  again  white.  Now,  it  is  from  the 
power  bodies  possess  of  throwing  off  or  of  absorbing  special  rays 
out  of  the  number,  that  they  appear  to  us  differently  colored.  If  a 
body  appears  blue,  the  blue  rays  alone  have  been  reflected  ;  and  so 
on  wTith  red,  green,  and  other  colors.  We  do  not  notice  any  inter- 
val between  looking  at  an  object  and  the  impression  on  our  eye  (as 
we  can  do  with  distant  objects  in  the  case  of  sound),  from  the 


THE    SENSES.  203 

I 

rapidity  with  which  light  travels,  and  from  not  having  any  other 
sense  that  can  give  us  information  more  quickly.  There  is  always 
an  interval,  however,  and  in  the  case  of  the  distant  heavenly  bodies 
this  has  been  calculated.  We  have  said  sound  travels  at  the  rate 
of  between  twelve  and  thirteen  miles  in  a  minute,  but  light  passes 
through  195,000  miles  in  the  sixtieth  part  of  the  same  time. 

As  the  eye  is  strictly  an  optical  instrument,  we  must  state  that  it 
is  a  law  of  optics  that  the  rays  of  light,  while  passing  through  the 
same  medium,  proceed  in  straight  lines,  but  that  they  are  turned 
out  of  their  course  when  they  pass  from  a  less  into  a  more  dense 
medium.  They  are  then  said  to  be  refracted.  This  takes  place 
when  the  rays  of  light  pass  from  air  into  water,  and  it  is  by  virtue 
of  the  same  law  that  a  common  magnifying  or  double  convex  glass 
collects  the  sun's  rays  into  a  focus  or  point. 

.  The  eye  has  various  appendages,  which  require  some  explana- 
tion. The  first  to  be  noticed  are  the  eyelids.  These  are  composed 
chiefly  of  a  gristly  substance  placed  under  the  skin  that  accurately 
fits  the  ball  of  the  eye,  and  which  is  lined  internally  by  a  thin  mem- 
brane called  the  conjunctiva,  that  turns  over  on  the  globe  of 
the  eye,  and  keeps  it  in  its  socket.  Attached  to  the  eyelids  are 
the  eyelashes,  which  protect  the  eye  from  too  great  a  glare 
of  light,  from  particles  of  dust,  &c.  Persons  without  eyelashes 
have  always  tender  eyes.  The  chief  purposes  served  by  the  eye- 
lids are,  1st,. to  protect  from  external  injury,  and  to  exclude  the 
light  when  they  are  closed ;  and,  2dly,  to  distribute  equally  over  the 
eyeball  the  fluid  which  moistens  it.  This  fluid  is  usually  carried 
off  as  quickly  as  it  is  formed ;  but  when  the  eye  is  irritated,  or  the 
mind  affected  by  various  emotions,  it  is  then  secreted  in  such  quan- 
tity as  to  run  over  the  eyelids  in  the  form  of  tears.  -  The  source  of 
this  fluid  is  a  gland,  named  the  lachrymal  gland,  situated  above  the 
outer  angle  of  the  eye.  Tears,  there  secreted,  pass  downwards  to 
the  eye,  whence  they  flow,  through  two  small  holes  (puncta  lachry- 
malia)  near  the  inner  angle  of  the  eyelids,  into  a  small  receptacle 
called  the  lachrymal  sac,  placed  immediately  behind  the  inner 
angle,  and  from  which  there  is  a  communication  to  the  nostrils  by 
what  is  called  the  nasal  duct.  This  is  the  reason  why,  when  tears 
are  copious,  a  necessity  for  blowing  the  nose  is  felt.  When  the 
nasal  duct  is  obstructed,  as  often  happens,  the  nostril  on  that  side 
is  dry,  and  the  tears  run  over  the  eyelids.  The  puncta  lachrymalia 
may  easily  be  seen  by  everting  the  eyelids,  and  looking  at  their 
inner  angle ;  and  the  opening  of  the  nasal  duct  may  be  seen  by  look- 


204  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

ing  into  tne  nostril  of  the  horse.  The  two  edges  of  the  eyelids, 
when  closed,  form  a  channel,  along  which  the  tears  flow.  Birds 
have  a  third  eyelid,  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  two  others,  which  they 
may  often  be  seen  moving.  Fishes  have  neither  eyelids  nor 
lachrymal  apparatus. 

Others  of  the  appendages  are  the  muscles  that  move  the  eye,  six 
in  number.  There  are,  besides  these,  two  that  move  the  eyelids. 
A  broad  circular  one,  which  closes  the  eyelids,  lies  immediately 
under  the  skin.  The  other,  which  raises  the  upper  eyelid,  is  a  long 
muscle,  and  is  attached  to  the  bone  deep  behind  the  eyeball. 

We  now  come  to  consider  the  globe  of  the  eye,  the  parts  com- 
posing which  are  seen  in  the  following  figure,  representing  a  hori- 
zontal section  of  it.  C,  the  cornea,  is  the  transparent  part  of  the 
eye  in  front,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  forms  part  of  a  lesser  circle,  and 
therefore  projects  more  than  the  rest  of  the  globe.  It  is  set  into 
the  white  part  of  the  ball  of  the  eye,  and  after  steeping,  can  be 
taken  out  of  it  like  a  watch-glass.  S,  the  sclerotic  or  hard  coat,  is 
the  outermost  one,  or  the  white  part  of  the  eye  seen  in  front.  It 
extends  over  the  whole  ball  posteriorly,  and,  from  its  toughness, 
forms  its  principal  support.  In  the  tortoise  and  in  birds,  this  part 
anteriorly  has  bony  matter  in  its  composition ;  and  in  the  immense 
eye  of  the  extinct  reptile  called  the  ichthyosaurus,  it  appears  to 
have  been  composed  of  bony  plates.  The  coat  (X),  which  lies 
internal  to  the  sclerotic,  is  called  the  choroid  coat.  It  is  lined  on 
its  inner  surface,  in  the  human  eye,  by  a  brownish-black  paint  (con- 
tained in  hexagonal  cells),  which  we  see  when  we  look  deep  into 
the  eye.  Its  use  seems  to  be  to  absorb  the  rays  of  light  not  re- 
quired in  vision.  The  color  of  this  paint  is,  as  every  one  has  seen, 
yellowish-green  in  the  eye  of  the  cat.  It  is  chocolate-brown  in  the 
hare  and  rabbit,  silvery-blue  in  the  horse,  and  pale  golden  yellow 
in  the  lion  and  bear.  In  general  it  is  of  a  light  shade  in  such  ani- 
mals as  prowl  by  night.  This  paint  is  wanting  altogether  in  albino 
animals,  such  as  white  rabbits  or  ferrets,  and  the  red  blood-vessels 
can  then  be  seen  in  the  eye.  This  coat  seems  to  be  continuous 
with  a  number  of  foldings  called  ciliary  processes  (K).  The  inner- 
most of  the  coats  of  the  eye  (R)  is  called  the  retina,  from  its  netted 
appearance.  It  consists  of  a  very  fine  membrane,  with  the  pulpy, 
half  transparent  substance,  which  is  continuous  with  the  optic 
nerve  (0),  expanded  upon  it.  This  is  the  seat  of  vision.  All 
visual  impressions  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  made  upon  this  ex- 
pansion, and  are  then  conveyed  by  the  optic  nerve  to  the  mind. 


THE   SENSES. 
Human  Eye  Dissected. 


205 


C,  cornea.    S,  sclerotic  coat.    X,  choroid  coat.    R,  retina.    O,  optic  nerve.    V,  vitreous  humor. 
L,  lens.    A,  aqueous  humor.    P,  pupil.    J,  iris.    K,  ciliary  processes. 

The  parts  of  the  eye  remaining  to  be  described  are  the  humors 
and  the  iris.  A  is  the  aqueous  or  watery  humor,  placed  imme- 
diately behind  (C)  the  cornea.  It  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  a 
posterior  chamber  by  (J)  the  iris,  which  floats  like  a  curtain  in  it. 
The  iris  is  the  part  that  gives  the  blue,  grey,  or  black  color  to  our 
eyes,  and  which  has  in  its  centre  an  opening  (P)  that  enlarges  or 
contracts  according  to  the  quantity  of  light  to  be  admitted.  It  is 
supposed  to  possess  a  circular  and  a  radiated  set  of  fibres  to  effect 
this.  Behind  the  aqueous  humor  lies  the  lens  (L),  the  firmest  of 
the  three  humors.  Its  form  in  the  human  eye,  as  seen  in  the  figure, 
is  something  like  a  highly  convex  magnifying-glass.  In  fishes  it 
is  globular,  and  it  is  it  that  falls  out  like  a  pea  when  the  eye  is  boiled. 

Horizontal  section  of  the  Eye,  showing  the  different  humors. 


Behind  this,  again,  is  placed  the  largest  or  vitreous  humor  (V), 
which  appears  of  rather  greater  consistence  than  the  white  of  an 


206  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

-egg,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  very  fine  transparent  membrane,  ramifying 
also  into  its  interior,  as  in  the  foregoing  figure. 

By  the  united  action  of  all  these  parts,  vision  is  produced.  The 
cornea  serves  the  purpose  of  a  convex  or  magnify  ing -glass,  to  col- 
lect into  foci  or  points  the  rays  of  light  that  pass  from  an  object  to 
the  eye,  and  this  effect  is  still  further  assisted  by  the  lens  placed 
behind  it.  The  point  where  these  foci  are  thus  formed,  is  the 
retina ;  and  the  eye  may  be  compared  to  the  optical  instrument 
called  the  camera  obscura,  which  is,  indeed,  but  an  imitation  of  th£ 
eye  itself.  Those  who  have  seen  this  instrument  will  know,  that 
when  the  part  corresponding  to  the  cornea  is  presented  to  a  land- 
scape, there  is  an  exact  picture  of  it  formed  on  the  back  part  of  the 
box.  Kepler,  the  great  astronomer,  made  the  interesting  discovery 
that  the  same  thing  may  be  seen  in  the  eye.  If  the  eye  of  a 
recently  killed  bullock  be  carefully  stripped  of  its  sclerotic  and 
choroid  coats  posteriorly,  and  the  retina  be  supported  by  a  piece  of 
transparent  silk,  it  may  be  placed  in  the  hole  of  a  window  shutter 
looking  out  upon  a  landscape,  and  a  diminutive  but  distinct  picture 
of  the  whole  may  be  seen  depicted  on  the  retina.  From  the  thin- 
ness of  the  coverings  of  the  eye  in  albino  animals  (such  as  the  white 
rabbit),  this  exquisitely  beautiful  experiment  may  be  performed  even 
without  removing  any  of  the  coats. 

It  is  truly  wonderful  to  think  that  all  the  accurate  perceptions  of 
this  sense  are  derived  from  the  images  of  a  crowded  picture  formed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  on  a  space  so  small  that  it  may  be 
covered  with  the  point  of  the  finger.  What  can  be  more  astonish- 
ing than  the  fact,  that  the  image  of  the  sail  of  a  windmill,  six  feet 
in  length,  seen  at  the  distance  of  twelve  paces,  occupies  only  the 
twentieth  part  of  an  inch  on  the  retina,  and  that  the  image  of  the 
same  sail,  when  removed  to  the  limits  of  distinct  vision,  occupies, 
according  to  the  calculations  of  M.  de  la  Hire,  only  the  eight 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  or  less  than  the  sixtieth  part  of  the 
breadth  of  a  common  hair!  "  We  can  never,"  to  quote  again  Dr. 
Paley's  words,  "  reflect  without  wonder  upon  the  smallness  yet 
correctness  of  the  picture  formed  at  the  bottom  of  .the  eye.  A 
landscape,  of  five  or  six  square  leagues,  is  brought  into  a  space  of 
half  an  inch  diameter,  yet  the  multitude  of  objects  which  it  contains 
are  all  preserved — are  all  discriminated  in  their  magnitudes,  posi- 
tions, figures,  colors.  A  prospect  is  compressed  into  a  compass  of  a 
sixpence,  yet  circumstantially  represented.  A  stage-coach,  travel- 
ling at  its  ordinary  speed  for  half  an  hour,  passes  in  the  eye  over  only 


THE   SENSES.  207 

on,e-twelfth  of  an  inch  ;  yet  is  this  change  of  image  distinctly  per- 
ceived throughout  its  whole  progress,  for  it  is  only  by  means  of  that 
perception  that  the  motion  of  the  coach  itself  is  made  sensible  to  the 
eye."  How  minute  must  be  the  object  of  man  as  represented  in 
the  retina  of  a  humming  bird  7 

THE    EYE. 


o,  represents  the  eyeball.  G,  the  crystalline  lens,  where  the  rays  of  light,  1  1  1,  from  A,  the 
arrow,  meet  like  a  sun-glass  and  diverge,  or  are  refracted  and  thrown  on  the  retina  B, 
which  represents  the  object  absolutely  perfect,  though  extremely  small,  e,  the  optic  nerVe, 
conveys  it  to  the  brain,  and  gives  it  a  knowledge  of  the  above  object.  Ill,  rays  of  light  from 
an  arrow,  which  pass  through  C,  the  crystalline  lens,  by  which  they  are  concentrated  the  same 
as  in  a  sun-glass,  in  front,  and  refracted  by  the  concavity  of  it  on  the  back,  and  thrown  on 
the  retina  B,  which  ought  to  be  a  little  further  back.  Here  the  object  is  formed.  The  other 
letters  represent  the  different  muscles  of  the  eye. 

After  what  has  already  been  said  of  the  proofs  of  design  furnished 
by  other  parts  of  the  body,  it  is  almost  unnecessary,  in  that  point  of 
view,  to  direct  attention  to  this  admirable  organ.  Its  mechanism  is 
so  clear  that  no  man  can  mistake  its  objects.  A  celebrated  philoso- 
pher held  (and  with  good  reason)  that  an  examination  of  the  eye  was 
a  cure  for  atheism ;  and  he  might  have  added,  that  it  not  only  proves, 
beyond  all  doubt,  the  existence  of  a  great  first  cause,  but  also, 
perhaps,  more  than  any  other  organ,  that  our  Creator's  design  is  to 
mingle  pleasure  with  our  existence.  If  only  what  was  necessary 
had  been  done,  it  has  been  well  remarked,  that  nothing  but  the  tame, 
dull  outlines  of  objects  might  have  been  made  sensible  to  us.  But 
color,  endless  in  its  shades,  ever  variegated  in  its  tints,  has  been 
spread  over  the  face  of  nature — with  what  purpose,  it  may  be  asked, 
if  not  to  convey  to  us  delight,  and  to  prove  that  He  who  made  us, 


208  ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY. 

also  wishes  us  to  be  happy.  But,  after  all,  it  would  appear  that 
we  cannot  use  that  happiness,  or  much  of  it,  without  first  having 
passed  through  great  sufferings,  the  lot  of  all  mortals. 

Among  even  the  lower  tribes  of  the  Radiata,  indications  of  sen- 
sibility to  light  have  been  observed,  but  no  distinct  organs  for  this 
sense  have  been  discovered.  Ehrenberg  has  lately  described  some 
small  spots  in  the  rays  of  the  star-fish,  which  he  conceives  answer 
the  purpose  of  the  organs  of  vision.  As  we  rise  higher,  visual  organs 
are  seen,  but  the  Sepia  is  the  lowest  that  has  eyes  constructed  like 
those  of  the  Vertebrata.  The  eyes  of  insects  are  called  compound, 
being,  in  truth,  immense  aggregations  of  eyes,  apparently  to  com- 
pensate for  their  want  of  mobility.  The  common  house-fly  has  8,000 
of  these  eyes ;  the  dragon-fly,  12,544 ;  and  some  other  species  have 
upwards  of  25,000. 

DISEASES. 

The  diseases  of  the  eye  are  very  numerous.  The  conjunctiva, 
lining  the  eyelids,  and  reflected  on  the  eyeball,  the  sclerotic  coat, 
and  the  iris,  are  particularly  liable  to  inflammation.  The  purulent 
ophthalmia  generally  commences  in  the  conjunctiva,  and  destroys 
the  eyes  of  great  numbers.  The  lens  often  becomes  opaque, 
especially  in  old  people,  and  causes  blindness.  When  this  happens, 
it  is  called  cateract,  and  very  frequently  an  operation  is  performed 
to  .restore  vision.  Blindness  also  arises  from  opacity  of  the  cornea, 
closure  of  the  pupil,  disease  of  the  retina  or  optic  nerve,  called 
amaurosis,  &c.* 

*  The  operation  for  cataracts,  instead  of  restoring  the  sight,  generally  destroys  it,  and 
extends  inflammation  to  the  other  eye.  One  surgeon  says  he  spoiled  a  hat-full  of  eyes 
before  he  could  operate  successfully.  He  should  have  added,  "  and  then  could  not  suc- 
ceed in  effecting  a  cure."  It  appears  unreasonable  to  run  an  instrument  into  the  ball 
of  the  eye,  and  thus  let  out  the  humors,  and  cause  inflammation,  to  remove  blindness. 
It  appears  to  me,  from  pretty  extensive  experience  and  observation,  that  the  means  made 
use  of  in  diseases  of  the  eye,  are  calculated  to  injure  instead  of  benefiting  them.  In 
inflammation,  scarifying  and  cupping  the  eyes  are  practised,  blistering,  mercury,  blue 
vitriol,  &c.,  &c.;  all  this  barbarous  and  empirical  practice  is  sufficient  to  cause  blindness 
in  the  eyes  of  those  which  are  sound,  and  which,  no  doubt,  is  often  done.  And  yet  we 
build  asylums  for  the  blind,  and  we  feel  great  compassion  for  the  inmates.  Now,  would 
it  not  be  much  more  wise  to  pass  laws  to  suppress  this  woful  quackery  of  our  "  sur- 
geons "  and  "  oculists,"  and  thus  prevent  the  evil  and  misfortune  of  those  made  blind 
by  their  malpractice,  in  place  of  allowing  them  to  use  absurd  and  dangerous  means  cal- 
culated to  induce,  instead  of  removing,  blindness.  But  the  major  part  of  the  commu- 
nity are  so  stupid,  prejudiced,  and  intellectually  blind  on  the  subject,  that  we  despair  of 
a  remedy,  unless  they  or  their  posterity  become  more  enlightened,  if  not  more  honest, 
I  believe  if  diseases  of  the  eyes  were  taken  in  time,  and  prudently  treated,  seldom  a 
case  of  blindness  would  ever  be  seen. 


THE    SENSES.  209 

THE    MIND. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  I  will  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  mind, 
this  wonderful,  unknown,  mysterious,  immortal  principle,  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  body. 

With  the  operations  of  animals,  who  always  perform  the  same 
work  in  the  very  same  manner — the  execution  of  any  individual 
being  neither  better  nor  worse  than  that  of  any  other  ;  in  whom  the 
individual,  at  the  end  of  some  months,  is  what  he  will  remain  through 
life,  and  the  species,  after  a  thousand  years,  just  what  it  was  in  the 
first  year — contrast  the  results  of  human  industry  and  invention,  and 
the  fruits  of  that  perfectibility  which  characterizes  both  the  species 
and  individual.  By  the  intelligence  of  man  the  animals  have  been 
subdued,  tamed,  and  reduced  to  slavery  ;  by  his  labors,  marshes 
have  been  drained,  rivers  confined,  their  cataracts  effaced,  forests 
cleared,  and  the  earth  cultivated.  By  his  reflection,  time  has  been 
computed,  space  measured,  the  celestial  motions  recognised  and 
represented,  the  heavens  and  the  earth  compared.  He  has  not 
merely  executed,  but  has  executed  with  the  utmost  accuracy, 
the  apparently  impracticable  tasks  assigned  him  by  the  poet : — 

Go,  wondrous  creature !  mount  where  science  guides ; 
Weigh  air,  measure  earth,  and  calculate  the  tidesv 

'•  *  • ' 

By  human  art,  which  is  an  emanation  of  science,  .mountains 
have  been  overcome,  and  the  seas  have  been  traversed ;  the  pilot 
pursuing  his  course  on  the  ocean,  with  as  much  certainty  as  if  it  had 
been  traced  for  him  by  engineers,  and  finding  at  each  moment  the 
exact  point  of  the  globe  on  which  he  is,  by  means  of  astronomical 
tables.  Thus  nations  have  been  united ;  and  a  new  world  has  been 
discovered,  opening  such  a  field  for  the  unfettered  and  uncorrupted 
energies  of  our  race,  that  the  senses  are  confused,  the  mind  dazzled, 
and  judgment  and  calculation  almost  suspended  by  the  grandeur  and 
brightness  of  the  glorious  and  interminable  prospects.  The  whole 
face  of  the  earth  at  present  exhibits  the  works  of  human  power, 
which,  though  subordinate  to  that  of  nature,  often  exceeds,  at  least 
so  wonderfully  seconds  her  operations,  that,  by  aid  of  man,  her 

Treatment. — In  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  which  in  nearly  every  case  precedes  blind- 
ness, means  should  be  taken  to  reduce  or  moderate  it  by  cathartics,  and  forcing  the  blood 
from  the  head  and  eyes  to  the  extremities  and  surface.  Elm  bark  and  cooling  washes  to 
the  eyes,  are  well  calculated  to  fulfil  these  intentions.  In  order  to  dispense  with  specta- 
cles and  preserve  the  sight,  wash  them  night  and  morning  with  cold  water  and  a  little 
white  castile  soap ;  and  more  than  all,  keep  clear  of  the  surgeon  and  professed  oculist, 
you  wish  your  eves  destroyed. 

14 


210  ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY. 

whole  extent  is  unfolded,  and  she  has  gradually  arrived  at  that 
point  of  perfection  and  magnificence  in  which  we  now  behold  her. 

In  the  point  of  view  which  I  have  just  considered,  man  stands 
alone  :  his  faculties,  and  what  he  has  effected  by  them,  place  him 
at  a  wide  interval  from  all  animals — at  an  interval  which  no  animal 
hitherto  known  to  us  can  fill  up.  The  manlike  monkey,  the  almost 
reasonable  elephant,  the  docile  dog,  the  sagacious  beaver,  the 
industrious  bee,  cannot  be  compared  to  him.  In  none  of  these 
instances  is  there  any  progress  either  in  the  individuals  or  the 
species. 

In  most  of  the  feelings  of  which  other  individuals  of  the  species 
are  the  subjects,  and  in  all  which  come  under  the  denomination  of 
moral  sentiments,  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  man  and 
animals,  and  a  decided  inferiority  of  the  latter.  The  attachment  of 
the  mother  to  the  offspring,  so  long  as  its  wants  and  feebleness 
require  her  aid  and  defence,  seems  as  strong  in  the  animal  as  in  the 
human  being,  and  bears  equally  in  both  the  characters  of  actions 
termed  instinctive.  Its  duration  is  confined  in  the  former  case,  even 
in  social  animals,  to  the  period  of  helplessness ;  and  the  animal 
instinct  is  not  succeeded,  as  in  man,  by  that  continued  intercourse 
of  affection  and  kind  offices,  and  those  endearing  relations,  which 
constitute  the  most  exalted  pleasures  of  human  life.  In  a  word,  as 
a  writer  has  said  :  We  can  almost  make  the  marble  speak ;  and 
since  this  was  uttered  has  it  not  been  realized  in  the  machine  invent- 
ed by  a  German,  which  articulates  words,  or  talks  by  means  of 
keys,  or  machinery. 

[ILLUSTRATIONS. — To  illustrate  the  sense  of  smell,  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  nose 
of  a  sheep  can  be  easily  made,  keeping  the  saw  as  much  as  possible  to  one  side,  when 
the  spongy  or  turbinated  bones,  which  are  covered  with  the  Schneiderian  membrane, 
and  are  convoluted  to  increase  the  extent  of  surface,  may  be  observed.  The  structure 
of  the  nose  of  the  cod  or  haddock  is  also  curious.  It  does  not  communicate  with  the 
mouth,  and  ought  to  be  shown.  The  olfactory  nerves  going  to  it  from  the  brain,  may 
easily  be  exposed  in  the  fish  with  a  strong  pair  of  scissors. 

The  organ  of  hearing  lies  deep  in  the  bone,  and  is  not  easily  got  at.  However,  the 
membrane  of  the  drum  in  a  sheep  can  be  very  nicely  shown,  by  taking  off  the  bone 
containing  the  ear  from  the  skull,  and  then  cutting  away  the  external  bony  canal  lead- 
ing to  it,  until  it  is  exposed.  The  small  bones  of  the  ear  may  also  be  obtained  by 
breaking  into  the  drum  with  a  strong  pair  of  cutting  pliers.  They  should  be  taken  out, 
and  fastened  with  gum  on  a  card  covered  with  a  piece  of  black  velvet. 

A  simple  apparatus  to  show  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  in  imitation  of  the  external 
ear,  may  be  constructed  by  forming  two  pieces  of  firm  pasteboard  into  a  shape  like  a 
common  funnel  used  for  decanting  liquors,  cutting  the  narrower  extremity  slopingly,  so 
as  to  leave  an  opening  about  two  inches  by  one  and  a  half,  and  gumming  loosely  over  this 
a  piece  of  goldbeater's  skin.  The  other  extremity  may  be  made  about  seven  inches  ic 


1  Lymphatic,  vessels.      2  Heart.    3  Lungs.       4  Liver. 
5  Stomach.     6  Lumbar  regions.    7Uterus.     8.8  Ovaries. 


THE    TEMPERAMENTS.  211 

diameter.  When  this  funnel  is  supported  on  a  wire-stand,  so  as  to  bring  the  gold- 
beater's skin  into  a  horizontal  position,  and  some  fine  sand  is  placed  on  it,  the  vibrations 
produced  by  the  air  may  be  seen,  by  beating  on  a  sheet  of  tin,  or  other  strongly  vibrat- 
ing body,  at  the  larger  extremity.  Any  tinsmith  will  give  the  shape  for  the  paste- 
board. 

The  structure  of  the  eye  can  be  admirably  shown.  Direct  attention  to  the  puncta 
lachrymalia ;  to  the  appearance  of  the  pupil,  contracting  and  dilating  as  more  or  less 
light  is  directed  on  the  eye ;  to  the  correspondence  of  the  motions  of  the  two  eyes  5  the 
color  of  the  iris,  &c.  The  muscles  of  the  eyeball  can  be  beautifully  seen  in  the  sheep, 
but  they  require  a  good  deal  of  dissection.  The  globe  of  the  eye  may  be  easily  shown, 
however.  Get  a  bullock's  or  sleep's  eye,  clear  off  the  fat,  &c.,  and  observe  the  optic 
nerve  entering  it  posteriorly.  Take  hold  of  the  optic  nerve,  introduce  a  pair  of  sharp 
scissors  through  its  coats,  rather  more  posteriorly  than  the  middle  of  the  globe,  and  cut 
the  coats  round  transversely.  The  exterior  sclerotic  coat,  the  pulpy  retina  (often  curled 
up)  interiorly,  and  the  choroid  coat  between  these,  will  then  be  seen.  Some  of  the 
vitreous  humor  will  probably  escape  in  making  the  section,  and  both  it  and  the  lens, 
lying  behind  the  pupil,  will  be  seen  when  the  posterior  section  of  the  eye  is  removed. 
A  number  of  lines  on  the  choroid  coat,  radiating  from  the  circumference  of  the  lens, 
and  called  ciliary  processes,  may  also  be  seen.  The  aqueous  humor  may  be  seen  to 
escape  when  the  eye  is  made  tense  (when  entire),  and  the  cornea  is  punctured.  The 
iris  may  be  examined  when  the  humors  are  removed.  A  similar  section  of  a  cod's  eye 
should  be  made  to  show  the  globular  lens.  The  eye  of  a  fowl  may  also  be  examined, 
and  its  bony  sclerotic,  third  eyelid,  &c.,  observed. 

Such  a  section  as  has  been  mentioned  should,  of  course,  always  be  made,  but  the 
anatomy  of  the  eye  is  made  much  more  simple  by  having  a  horizontal  section  model  of 
it.  In  this  its  coats,  humors,  &c.,  are  all  seen,  and  their  relations  may  be  comprehended 
with  the  utmost  ease  by  young  students. 

To  show  the  inverted  image  on  the  retina,  the  eye  of  a  white  rabbit  answers  well. 
It  is  seen  best  by  candle  light,  and  when  two  or  three  lights  are  moved  before  the  eye. 
All  the  muscles  and  fat  must  first,  of  course,  be  removed  posteriorly. 

A  prism,  to  show  the  decomposition  of  light,  and  a  small  camera  obscura,  should  be 
exhibited. 

For  figures  to  illustrate  this  chapter,  see  Lizars'  Colored  Plates,  pages  75, 76 ;  Roget's 
Bridgewater  Treatise,  vol.  ii.,  pages  384,  400,  401,  425,  464,  467.] 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE   TEMPERAMENTS. 

THERE  are  four  of  these :  1st,  The  lymphatic,  in  which  there  is 
easily  seen  a  full,  soft,  and  rounded  form,  and  languid  action. 

2d,  The  sanguine,  in  which  there  is  a  florid  complexion,  ex- 
panded chest,  and  general  vivacity  of  disposition,  showing  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  vascular  system,  known  generally  by  the  term 
of  plethoric  or  full  habit,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  being  very 
full  and  strong. 


212 


ANATOMY  AND    PHYSIOLOGY, 


3d,  The  bilious,  in  which  the  muscular  system  predominates. 
The  body  is  remarkable  for  compactness  of  fibre,  indicative  of 
strength  and  activity. 

4th,  The  nervous,  in  which  there  is  a  thin,  sharp  outline,  irregu- 
lar and  vivacious  activity,  and  great  susceptibility  of  impressions, 
and  which  betoken  the  predominance  of  the  nervous  over  all  the 
other  functions.  Says  Shakspeare — 

Let  me  have  men  about  me  that  are  fat ; 
Sleek-headed  men,  and  such  as  sleep  o'  nights  ; 
Yond'  Cassius  has  a  lean  and  hungry  look; 
He  thinks  too  much ;  such  men  are  dangerous. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  different  temperaments  : — 
FIG.  18.     LYMPHATIC.  FIG.   19.      SANGUINE. 


FIG.  20.     BILIOUS. 


FIG.  21.     NERVOUS. 


THE    TEMPERAMENTS. 


213 


The  following  Figures  represent  the  facial  angles  of   different 
nations  according  to  Camper  : — 


Head  of  the  Negro  (some  races). 


Ourang. 


Ancient  Greek  Statue. 


European. 


* 


APPENDIX. 


PHRENOLOGY.* 

I  subjoin  a  few  remarks  on  Phrenology. 

DEFINITION. — Phrenology  points  out  those  connexions  and  relations  which  exist 
between  the  conditions  and  developments  of  the  BRAIN,  and  the  manifestations  of  tlie  MIND, 
discovering  each  frem  an  observation  of  the  other.  Its  one  distinctive  characteristic 
featurfc  is,  that  each' class  o^ mental  functions  is  manifested  by  means  of  a  given 
portiQmpf  the  brain',  called  an  organ,  the  size  of  which  is  the  measure  of  the  power  of 
function.  Thus  the  benevolent  feeling  is  manifested  and  indicated  by  means  of  brain 
in  ihe  frontal  part  of  the  top  of  the  bead,  and  in  proportion  to  the  development  of  brain 
here,  will  be  one's  spontaneous  flow  of  kind,  obliging  feeling,  and  so  of  every  other 
quality  of  mind. 

I  am  indebted  to  my  friend  Mr.  Wells  for  the  following  cut  of  the  phrenological 
organs. 


*  Derived  from  the  two  Greek  words,  "  Phren,"  which  signifies  mind,  and  "  Logos,"  discourse  ; 
the  two  together  signifying  the  science  of  mind,  or  its  laws  and  phenomena,  as  manifested 
through  the  brain. 


APPENDIX.  215 

.ARRANGEMENT,  NUMBERING,  AND  DEFINITION  OF  THE  FACULTIES. 

1.  AMATIVENESS— Love  and  attraction  between  the  sexes  as  such;  desire  of 

coition ;  also,  to  caress,  pet,  and  fondle. 

2.  PHILOPROGENITIVENESS— Parental  love,  regard  for  children,  pets,  and 

animals,  and  desire  for  their  welfare. 

3.  ADHESIVENESS— Friendship,  attachment,  affection,  desire  for  society,  associa- 

tion, and  social  enjoyment. 

A.  UNION  FOR  LIFE— Desire  to  pair,  to  unite,  and  be  in  the  constant  society  of 

those  whom  we  love. 

4.  INH ABIT! VENESS— Love  of  place,  desire  for  a  permanent  homestead  and 

residence,  to  work  and  live  in  one  place. 

5.  CONCENTRATIVENESS— Unity  and    continuity  of  thought    and   feeling; 

tendency  to  dwell  upon  one  subject. 

6.  COMBATIVENESS— Resistance,  self-protection;    spirit,  of  opposition,  resolu- 

tion ;  disposition  to  brave  danger.  •> 

7.  DESTRUCTIVENESS— Executiveness,  indignation,  irritability,  a  destroying  and 

pain-causing  disposition;  energy. 

8.  ALIMENTATIVENESS— Appetite,  desire  of  nutrition,  sense  of  hunger,  and 

capacity  to  enjoy  food  and  drink. 

9.  ACQUISITIVENESS— Desire  to   acquire  and  possess   property  as  such;   its 

exercise  tends  to  frugality  and  industry.          * 

10.  SECRETIVENESS— Sense  of  secresy,  concealment,  cunning,  evasion;  disguis- 

ing one's  real  sentiments  and  plans. 

1 1.  CAUTIOUSNESS— Sense  of  danger ;  apprehension,  delay,  regard  for  present  and 

future  safety;  fear,  dread  of  results. 

12.  APPRO BATIVENESS— Sense  of  character  and  appearance;  desire  to  please, 

love  of  praise  and  popularity ;  vanity. 

13.  SELF-ESTEEM— Self-regard;  pride,  independence,  dignity;  love  of  power  and 

distinction ;  self-reliance. 

14.  FIRMNESS — Decision,  will,  perseverance,  stability,  determination  of  purpose; 

unwillingness  to  yield. 

15.  CONSCIENTIOUSNESS— Sense  of  moral  obligation;   regard  for  truth  and 

justice  ;  contrition,  integrity,  honesty,  &c. 

C.  CIRCUMSPECTION— Sense  of  discretion,  consistency,  uniformity,  and  balanc- 
ing power— [not  fully  established.] 

16.  HOPE — Sense  of  immortality,  and  of  the  future ;  anticipation,  expectation ;  looking 

forward  for  future  results. 

17.  MARVELLOUSNESS— Credulity ;  sense  of  the  spiritual  and  supernatural;  belie* 

in  invisible  agency ;  faith,  curiosity. 

18.  VENERATION— Sense  of  greatness;  adoration;  respect  for  superiority,  authority, 

and  deference  to  age  or  antiquity. 

19.  BENEVOLENCE — Munificence,  sympathy,  disinterestedness,  and  desire  to  pro- 

mote the  happiness  of  others. 

20.  CONSTRUCTIVENESS— Sense  of  mechanism,  manual  dexterity,  contrivance, 

ingenuity,  and  skill.      • 

21.  IDEALITY — Sense  of  perfection ;  delicacy,  taste,  refinement,  appreciation  of  the 

beautiful  in  nature  and  art. 

B.  SUBLIMITY— Sense  of  the  vast,  the  grand,  and  the  sublime  in  nature;  love  of 

the  highest  kinds  of  composition. 

22  IMITATION— Powers  of  representatation,|imitation,  and  adaptation';  versatility  of 
action ;  ability  to  mimic  others. 


216  APPENDIX. 

23.  MIRTHFULNESS— Perception  of  the  absurd  and  ridiculous;    gaiety,  levity, 

playfulness,  and  buffoonery. 

24.  INDIVIDUALITY— Power  to  identify  individual  objects  ;  observation  of  details; 

desire  to  be  an  eye-witness. 

25.  FORM— Sense  of  shape,  likeness,  expression,  and  outline  ;  memory  of  counte- 

nances a.nd  configuration. 

26.  SIZE — Sense  of  proportion,  magnitude,  and  equality;  and  relation  of  outlines; 

exactitude. 

27.  WEIGHT — Sense  of  gravity;  power  to  balance,  and  apply  the  laws  of  gravity  in 

machinery  and  muscular  motion. 

28.  COLOR — Sense  of  colors ;  their  beauty,  arrangement,  and  harmony  in  nature  and 

painting. 

29.  ORDER — Sense  of,  and  desire  for  convenience   and  arrangement;    neatness; 

perception  of  general  economy. 

30.  CALCULATION — Perception  of  numbers,  and  their  relations  •  numerical  com- 

putations. 

31.  LOCALITY — Sense  of  place,  position,  and  direction;    memory  of  objects  by 

location ;  desire  to  travel,  see  places,  &c. 

32.  EVENTUALITY — Sense  of  action,  events,  phenomena,  statistical  knowledge; 

memory  of  facts ;  love  of  narrative. 

33.  TIME— Sense  of  chronology,  of  duration,  of  passing  time ;  when,  and  how  long ; 

equality  in  step  and  beat 41  music. 

34.  TUNE — Perception  of  sound,  of  melody,  of  proper  emphasis,  and  modulation  of 

the  voice ;  abi  aty  to  compose  music. 

35.  LANGUAGE— Sense  of  words  or  signs  to  communicate  ideas;  ability  to  talk; 

memory  or  words  and  names. 

36.  CAUSALITY — Sense  of  cause  and  effect;  power  of  abstract  thought,  penetration, 

planning,  invention,  originality. 

37.  COMPARISON— Sense  of  resemblance,   of  analogies,   similes,   and  power  of 

analysis ;  association,  comparison,  &c. 

The  celebrated  Alexander  Campbell,  founder  of  the,  Campbellite  Baptists,  was 
examined  by  Mr.  Fowler.  After  which  he  addressed  him  the  following  letter,  cor- 
roborating the  correctness  of  the  examination : — 

New  York,  May  3,  1847. 
MR.  N.  L.  FOWLER  : — 

"  Dear  Sir, — When,  at  the  request  of  Mrs.  Campbell,  one  of  your  readers,  I  called  at 
your  office,  without  in  any  way  making  myself  known  to  you,  simply  saying  that  I  had, 
at  the  request  of  a  friend,  called  upon  you  to  obtain  a  chart  of  my  head.  I  little  expected 
to  hear  you  so  soon  begin  to  tell  me  your  views  of  my  physiological  and  mental  charac- 
ter, and  describe,  with  such  remarkable  exactness,  what  I  knew  of  myself — two  or  three 
points,  at  most,  out  of  some  twenty  or  more  prominent  characteristics  of  both,  only 
excepted.  Had  I  had  any  doubts  of  the  general  principles  of  the  science  being  founded 
on  facts,  and  facts  well-arranged,  I  should  have  been  delivered  of  them  all.  so  far  as 
my  own  knowledge  of  myself  will  justify  me  in  forming  an  estimate  of  the  different 
attributes  you  noted  in  my  physiological  and  mental  constitution. 

"  I  am  not  one  of  these  who  imagine  that  any  science,  and  still  less  that  of  the  human 
mind,  or  of  human  nature,  can  in  a  few  years,  or  by  one  class  of  contemporary  minds, 
be  completely  and  perfectly  developed  and  matured.  I  am,  therefore,  of  the  opinion, 
that  the  Science  of  Phrenology  is  but  in  progress,  and  not  yet  perfected ;  but  that  it 
should  have,  in  so  few  years,  and  in  defiance  of  the  hoary  and  consecrated  systems  of 
metaphysical  science  arrayed  against  it,  and  sustained  by  names  the  most  admired  and 
revered  in  Christendom,  attained  its  present  state  of  perfection,  is  truly  wonderful,  and 


APPENDIX.  217 

characteristic  of  the  rapid  march  of  all  sorts  of  improvement  in  this  truly  inquisitive 
and  ambitious  age. 

"  I  have  been  frequently  solicited  by  friends  who  are  amateurs  in  the  science,  to  allow 
them  to  give  me  a  chart  of  my  head.  Their  reports  were,  in  the  main,  generally  con- 
formable to  my  knowledge  of  myself;  but  their  previous  knowledge  of  my  character 
was  always  such  as  to  leave  some  dubiety  whether  they  did  not  correct  their  Phrenology 
from  their  memory  or  acquaintance  with  me,  rather  than  simply  utter  the  revelations  of 
the  cranium.  Your  having  no  advantage  of  this  sort,  has  given  to  your  details  a  value 
paramount  to  those  of  any  other  phrenologist  with  whom  I  have  been  conversant ;  and 
I  cannot  but  admire  the  science  which  bestows  upon  its  possessor  the  power  thus  to 
develope  the  human  mind,  and  to  advance  the  cause  of  education,  physical,  and  intel- 
lectual, and  moral.  Please  accept  my  thanks  for  the  copy  which  you  have  sent  me  of 
what  you  said  to  me,  almost  off-hand,  with  my  wishes  for  your  success  in  all  your 
endeavors  to  further  the  cause  of  a  rational  education,  to  improve  the  human  constitu- 
tion, and  to  increase  the  social  happiness  of  our  species. 

"  Respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

"A.  CAMPBELL." 


MESMERISM. 


A  PEW  remarks  on  that  functional  state  of  the  nervous  system,  termed  Mesmerism, 
may  not  be  irrelevant  to  add  in  this  treatise.  It  is  called  by  some  animal  or  human 
magnetism.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  has  been  revived  by  the  moderns,*  par- 
ticularly in  the  last  century  by  Dr.  Frederick  Antony  Mesmer,  of  France,  from  whom 
it  has  derived  its  name.  Under  the  name  of  "  neurology,"  attempts  have  been  made 
in  this  country  to  put  a  new-dress  upon  it,  and  to  bring  it  before  the  public  with  new 
features,  and  to  connect  with  it  some  new  discoveries ;  but  it  remains  to  be  what  it  has 
ever  been,  the  principal  difference  being  only  different  modes  of  illustration. 

Of  the  nature  of  this  mysterious  principle  or  agent,  we  know  but  little,  but  of  its 
effects  on  the  system  we  are  quite  familiar ;  and  it  can  be  practised  and  demonstrated 
easily  by  any  one  a  little  acquainted  with  the  method  of  operating  upon  those  termed 
"  impressible  subjects."  After  repeated  passes  of  the  hand  from  the  head  downwards 
nearly  in  contact  with  the  body,  the  subject  falls  into  a  mesmeric  sleep,  formerly  called 
the  crisis,  in  which  the  outward  senses,  particularly  the  sight,  are  apparently  closed,  and 
the  interior,  or  inward  senses,  are  capable  of  seeing  and  describing  objects  not  otherwise 
visible — as  internal  diseases,  reading  when  blindfolded,  &c.  The  body  sometimes 
becomes  fixed  as  in  a  trance,  and  is  insensible  to  pain,  so  that  even  surgical  opera- 
tions have  been  performed  in  a  magnetic  sleep  without  causing  distress. 

A  limb  having  been  mesmerized,  becomes  stiff  and  almost  immovable,  and  may  be 
made  to  adhere  firmly  to  the  head,  so  that  it  cannot  be  forced  off  until  the  fluid  has  been 
withdrawn.  The  will  of  the  person  magnetized  appears  to  be  completely  under  the 
direction  of  the  magnetizer.  In  this  condition,  if  any  of  the  phrenological  organs  be 
magnetized,  it  developes  their  peculiar  character,  and  the  subject  involuntarily  ex- 
ercises them  preternaturally ;  for  instance,  combativeness,  which  arouses  the  pugnacious 
or  fighting  propensities;  if  amativeness,  the  subject  make  loves  to  the  operator.  Some 
who  make  extravagant  if  not  visionary  pretensions  to  magnetism,  assert  that  by  putting 
certain  agents  into  the  hand,  such  as  Capsicum,  Antimony,  &c.,  their  effects  will  be  felt 

*  Travellers  in  eastern  countries  describe  paintings  found  in  the  temples  of  Thebes  and  other 
ancient  cities  which  represent  persons  in  a  sleeping  posture,  while  others  are  making  passes  ever 
them.  The  priests  of  Chaldea,  of  Nineveh,  of  Babylon,  of  Judea,  and  Jerusalem,  and  the  priests 
and  physicians  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  practised  magnetism  in  their  temples  and  in  the  heal- 
ing art,  long  before  the  Christian  era.  "  Aristotle  informs  us  that  Thales,  who  lived  six  hundred 
years  befoie  Christ,  ascribed  the  curative  properties  in  the  magnet  to  a  soul  with  which  he  sup- 
posed it  to  be  endowed,  and  without  which' he  also  supposed  no  kind  of  motion  could  take  place. 
Pliny  also  affirms  the  magnet  to  be  useful  in  curing  diseases  of  the  eyes,  scalds,  and  burns  ;  and 
Celsus,  a  philosopher  of  the  first  century  after  Christ,  speaks  of  a  physician  by  the  name  of 
Asclepiades,  who  soothed  the  ravings  of  the  insane  by  manipulations,  and  he  adds  that  his  manual 
operations,  when  continued  for  some  time,  produced  a  degree  of  sleep  or  lethargy." 


APPENDIX.  219 

upon  the  system ;  and  no  doubt  those  who  have  the  organ  of  marvellous-ness  largely  de- 
veloped suppose  that  some  such  effect  is  produced,  with  other  strange  fancies. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  How  far  is  it  useful  1  This  remains  yet  to  be  shown. 
Some  attach  great  remedial  power  to  magnetism,  and,  no  doubt,  in  some  cases,  it  exerts 
an  influence,  and  may  have  proved  useful ;  but  as  yet  nothing  very  definite  or  certain  has 
been  established  that  we  can  rely  upon.  It  would  appear  that  those  termed  "  clair- 
voyants "  are  able  to  detect  diseases,  but  most  of  them  are  unable  to  prescribe  success- 
fully, as  I  have  proved  in  my  practice.  How  far  this  agent  will  be  more  fully  developed 
remains  to  be  seen.  But  probably  much  greater  light  will  be  thrown  upon  it  by  future 
investigations.  Without  doubt  all  the  phenomena  are  to  be  referred  to  natural  causes, 
and  not  to  superhuman  or  satanic  agency,  as  has  been  supposed.  * 

Some  err,  if  not  degrade  themselves,  by  the  false  and  visionary  ideas  they  attach  to 
magnetism.  They  make  it  their  "  hobby,"  and  much  of  their  ideality  is  associated  with 
its  wonderful  effects  on  the  system.  To  listen  to  them,  we  would  suppose  that  their 
claims  to  discoveries  were  superior  to  all  others.  This  manifests  a  peculiar  state  of 
mind  bordering  on  monomania,  and  the  healing  art  at  least  will  not  be  much  indebted  to 
such  for  improvements. 

The  subject  of  animal  magnetism  now  excites  considerable  interest  in  England  and 
India,  and  some  experiments  have  been  made  which  illustrate  very  clearly  its  singular 
effects  upon  the  system.  Institutions  and  periodicals  have  been  established  to  promote  it, 
particularly  among  the  poor,  as  a  medical  agent.  A  mesmeric  infirmary  has  been  esta- 
blished for  the  poor  in  Dublin,  and  one  in  Madras,  in  India,  called  the  Eckctic  Mes- 
meric Hospital.  The  British  government  has  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate 
its  merits.  The  resident  surgeon  has  reported  several  operations  performed  on  native 
patients  for  large  tumors,  which  were  removed  without  pain  in  the  mesmeric  trance, 
weighing  from  thirty  to  a  hundred  pounds.  Dr.  Esdaile,  one  of  the  surgeons  of  the 
institutions  in  India,  closes  the  report  on  the  effects  of  mesmerism  in  the  following 
language  :— 

"  From  the  foregoing  facts,  I  consider  myself  entitled  to  say  that  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  patients  in  the  mesmeric  trance  may  be  insensible  to, 

"  1st,  The  loudest  noises. 

11 3d,  Painful  pricking  and  pinching. 

"  3d,  The  cutting  of  inflamed  parts. 

"  4th.  The  application  of  nitric  acid  to  raw  surfaces. 

"  5th,  The  racking  of  the  electro-magnetic  machine. 

"  6th,  The  most  painful  surgical  operation,  and  yet  be  aroused  into  full  conscious- 
ness by  the  exposure  of  the  naked  bodies  for  a  few  minutes  to  the  cold  air. 

(Signed)  "  JAMES  ESDAILE,  M.D. 

"*  1st  January,  1847." 


220 


APPENDIX. 


The  following  figure,  which  I  have  had  engraved  from  an  old  English  author,  repre 
8ents  strikingly  the  method  of  operating  at  that  day  with  the  costume  then  worn. 


THE  FOLLOWING  FlPURES  REPRESENTS  THE  GOLD  MEDALS  RECEIVED 
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14  DAY  USE 

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